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OPEN-AIR  SCHOOLS 


By 
SIEGRIED  MAIA  HANSEN  UPTON,  A.  M. 

Teacher  in  the  Horace  Mann  School,  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University 


Published  by 

Slrariipra  (HoIUqp.  CHolumbia  MnirttrsiU^ 

NEW  YORK  CITY 

1914 


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PREFACE 

Little  has  been  written  on  open-air  schools  during  the  past 
few  years.  By  consulting  the  rather  full  bibliography  in  Chap- 
ter IX,  which  has  been  compiled  to  date,  it  will  be  found  that 
most  of  the  contributions  on  this  subject  appeared  not  later  than 
1910,  which  in  a  large  measure  are  summed  up  in  Ayres'  "Open- 
Air  Schools."  All  these  earlier  books  and  articles  devoted  them- 
selves mainly  to  questions  of  equipment,  the  problem  of  keeping 
children  warm  out-of-doors,  or  to  a  few  statistics  relative  to  the 
physical  and  mental  gain  found  in  open-air  classes.  The  articles 
of  the  last  three  years  have  dealt  with  details  along  these  same 
lines. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  experiment  instruction  in  open-air 
schools  has  been  conducted  in  general  as  in  indoor  schools,  the 
main  difference  being  in  the  arrangement  of  the  program  of 
study.  The  first  few  years  showed  remarkable  results  due  in 
part,  no  doubt,  to  the  enthusiasm,  optimism,  and  energy  which 
accompany  any  new  movement,  especially  one  so  radical  as  the 
open-air  school.  During  the  past  two  years  there  has  been  a 
period  of  trying  out  and  of  seeking  a  normal  pace  with,  as 
already  suggested,  few  new  contributions. 

The  purpose  of  the  present  article  is  not  to  review  the  begin- 
ning years,  so  adequately  treated  in  the  book  by  Ayres,  but 
rather  to  supplement  this  early  fund  of  information  by  personal 
observation  and  study  of  the  outdoor  school  movement  as  it  is 
working  out  at  present,  and  particularly  to  suggest  ways  of 
applying  the  measuring  rod  to  the  open-air  school  in  order  that 
we  may  know  much  more  definitely  than  we  do  now  how  valu- 
able this  new  work  is  and  how  it  compares  with  that  usually 
found  indoors.  Such  a  study  seems  called  for  as  the  author 
finds  that  the  present  tendencies  are  to  conduct  a  slightly  modi- 
fied indoor  school  in  the  open  air.  A  movement  of  such  promise 
and  importance  to  anemic,  weak,  and  even  normal  children 
deserves  more  attention  of  a  scientific  kind  than  it  has  already 

iii 

333874 


iv  Preface 

had.  We  must  bring  this  outdoor  movement  into  proper  per- 
spective to  learn  better  how  great  a  contribution  to  educational 
progress  it  has  been.  We  must  discover  also  how  better  to 
adapt  our  methods  of  instruction  to  outdoor  needs  and,  if  we 
discover  anything  of  value,  to  ask  if  its  good  is  limited  to  out- 
door conditions  or  if  it  may  also  be  helpful  in  improving  the 
indoor  school.  The  open-air  school  with  its  new  environment 
and  novelty  offers  special  inducements  for  scientific  experiment 
of  this  kind  and  should  prove  an  inviting  field  for  applying  the 
methods  of  the  educational  psychologist.  Only  by  such  means 
will  we  know  much  more  about  this  new  kind  of  school  than 
we  did  during  the  first  few  years  of  its  existence. 

The  historical  survey  in  Chapter  II  has  been  given  solely  for 
purposes  of  comparison  in  the  later  chapters. 

SiEGRiED  Maia  Hansen  Upton 

Horace  Mann  School 

Teachers  College 

Columbia  University 

New  York  City 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

I.    Introduction 1 

II.    Historical  Sketch   5 

General 5 

The  Charlottenburg  School 6 

Open-air  schools  in  Italy 9 

The  Horace  Mann  School 11 

III.  Organization    of   typical   open-air    schools    including 

observations  based  on  personal  visits 13 

IV.  Open-window  rooms 35 

Special    points    noted    when    visiting    open-window 

classes 36 

V.    Points  in  controversy  concerning  open-air  schools 39 

VI.    Suggested  experiments  for  modification  of  indoor  methods 

TO  suit  outdoor  conditions 43 

VII.    Some  tests  for  determining  the  efficiency  of  the  methods 

of   open-air    schools 47 

Physical  tests   47 

Tests  relative  to  conduct 49 

Mental  tests  afforded  by  school  records 49 

Mental  tests  suggested  by  psychologists 50 

VIII.    Special  tests  for  third  grade  pupils 52 

Some  third  grade  tests  presented  in  detail 54 

IX.    Bibliography 60 


TEACHERS  COLLEGE  RECORD 


Vol.  XV  MAY,  1914  No.  3 


OPEN-AIR  SCHOOLS 


INTRODUCTION 

In  the  education  of  to-day  the  problem  of  fundamental  im- 
portance is  the  physical  welfare  and  efficiency  of  the  child. 
The  child  who  is  in  poor  health  is,  as  a  rule,  found  to  be  back- 
ward in  school  studies,  not  because  of  defective  intelligence  but 
because  of  underfeeding,  organic  weakness,  or  incipient  disease. 

Along  with  the  present  tendency  to  discover  and  correct  physi- 
cal defects  has  arisen  the  movement  for  more  outdoor  life  for 
the  young  child.  How  can  the  physically  debilitated  child  get 
more  outdoor  life  and  still  meet  the  requirements  of  compulsory 
education  laws?  Instruction  in  the  open  air  is  the  answer  to 
the  problem. 

For  this  outdoor  school  work  those  children  are  selected  who 
are  physically  unfit  to  remain  in  the  ordinary  indoor  school 
room  or  to  benefit  by  its  instruction. 

It  has  been  known  for  some  time  that  delicate  and  tuberculous 
children  and  adults  become  stronger  and  in  many  cases  get  well 
out-of-doors  while  they  become  weaker  and  die  indoors.  The 
one  fact  open-air  schools  have  established  is  that  sickly  children 
are  made  healthier  and  stronger  in  this  new  environment. 

It  would  be  cheaper  in  the  end,  as  well  as  more  humane,  for 
every  city  to  provide  free  open-air  classes  with  food,  warm 
clothing,  medical  aid,  and  a  teacher  for  every  group  of  twenty 
children,  thereby  producing  strong  healthy  bodies  able  to  com- 
139]  [1 


:  2 - 


2  Teachers  College  Record  [140 

bat  disease,  and  active  minds  finding  interest  and  pleasure  in 
useful  occupations,  than  to  go  on  with  the  present  partially  suc- 
cessful school  system  and  in  the  end  spend  more  money  year 
by  year  on  courts,  judges,  jails,  free  food,  municipal  lodging 
houses,  hospitals,  asylums,  charity  organizations,  and  the  rest 
of  the  modern  means  of  trying  to  deal  with  mental,  moral,  and 
physical  incompetents. 

About  three  per  cent  of  the  entire  school  population  need 
outdoor  treatment.  The  Fourth  International  Congress  of 
School  Hygiene,  held  at  Buffalo,  New  York,  August  25-30,  1913, 
is  responsible  for  the  statement  that  "  Nearly  a  million  tuber- 
culous children  or  children  strongly  disposed  to  tuberculosis  are 
attending  our  public  schools  and  there  is  hardly  accommodation 
for  1,500  to  receive  instruction  in  the  open  air."  It  thus  be- 
comes a  question  not  of  whether  a  city  can  afford  to  establish 
open-air  schools  but  rather  one  of  whether  it  can  afford  not 
to  establish  them.  Without  open-air  classes  money  must  be  paid 
by  the  school  community  for  educating  children  who  through 
early  death  must  be  counted  as  a  complete  loss  to  it  in  the 
end.  It  has  been  and  always  will  be  true  that  the  competent 
persons  of  a  community  must  carry  every  ounce  of  the  burden 
of  those  who  are  incompetent.  The  growing  percentage  of  in- 
competents in  our  large  cities  is  appalling. 

At  present  we  cannot  say  that  open-air  school  life  will  cure 
tuberculosis  as  this  disease  is  often  apparently  cured  in  child- 
hood to  crop  out  again  from  the  ages  of  twenty  to  thirty  years. 
The  following-up  of  the  life  histories  of  these  cases  can  be 
the  only  means  of  proving  the  full  value  of  the  outdoor  "  cure." 

The  whole  open-air  school  movement  got  its  chief  impetus 
through  the  efforts  of  various  societies  interested  in  the  preven- 
tion of  tuberculosis  which  started  and  financed  this  work  until 
results  were  assured  and  the  public  became  interested.  Wher- 
ever school  instruction  was  needed  in  connection  with  these 
open-air  classes  the  local  school  board  usually  furnished  the 
teacher  and  paid  her  salary.  In  many  cities  these  societies  now 
feel  that  the  school  board  should  assume  full  charge  and  ex- 
pense of  the  open-air  school  so  they  can  turn  their  attention  to 
other  much  needed  social  services. 


141]  Open-Air  Schools  3 

The  idea  of  the  out-of-door  movement  is  not  modern.  Cen- 
turies ago  the  need  for  more  outdoor  life  for  young  children 
and  the  value  of  outdoor  education  were  advocated  and  urged 
by  the  great  educators  of  that  time.  The  ideas  of  time-honored 
as  well  as  present-day  writers  upon  this  subject  are  suggested 
by  the  following  quotations : 

"  Come  with  me,  my  son.  Let  us  go  into  the  open.  There, 
through  Nature,  you  shall  see  that  which  God  has  been  doing 
since  the  beginning  and  that  which  He  is  continuing  to  do." 

Comenius 

"  Why  in  place  of  dead  books,  should  we  not  open  the  living 
book  of  Nature?  To  teach  youth  is  not  to  inculcate  a  mass  of 
words,  phrases,  sentences,  and  opinions  gathered  from  authors ; 
it  is,  to  open  for  him,  by  means  of  things,  understanding  and 
judgment." 

Comenius 

"  The  city  becomes  the  charnel-house  of  the  human  species ; 
at  the  end  of  a  few  generations  the  human  race  perishes  or 
degenerates.  It  becomes  necessary  to  renew  it  and  it  is  always 
the  country  that  furnishes  the  new  life.  Send  your  children 
then  where  they  may  live  in  the  midst  of  fields,  in  order,  so  to 
speak,  that  the  life  within  them  may  be  regenerated,  in  order 
that  they  may  find  again  the  vigor  that  was  lost  in  the  unhealthy 
air  of  a  thickly  populated  place." 

/.  /.  Rousseau 

"  It  is  especially  during  the  first  years  of  life  that  air  and  sun 
benefit  the  constitutions  of  children ;  they  penetrate  the  soft  and 
deHcate  skin  by  all  the  pores,  they  affect  especially  young  bodies, 
leaving  upon  them  traces  which  are  ineffaceable." 

/.  /.  Rousseau 

"  Up  to  twelve  years  the  child  should  be  out-of-doors  in 
order  to  cultivate  his  senses." 

/.  /.  Rousseau 

"  Learn  from  the  school  of  life  and  experience.  Traverse  the 
fields  and  other  grassy  places,  visit  the  trees  and  the  plants, 
compare  them  with  the  books  of  ancient  authors  who  have 
written  concerning  them,  and  take  home  with  you  whole  hand- 
fuls  of  them.  When  the  weather  is  unfavorable,  instead  of 
herborizing  visit  the  apothecary,  the  chemist  and  the  druggist, 
and  carefully  consider  the  fruits,  the  roots,  the  leaves,  the  seeds, 
and  the  gums." 

Rabelais 


4  Teachers  College  Record  [142 

"  Of  all  the  flowers,  the  human  flower  is  the  one  which  has 
the  greatest  need  of  sunshine." 

Michelet 

"  The  artisans  of  ancient  Greece  always  saw  whichever  object 
of  art  they  were  working  upon  out-of-doors;  it  was  to  fit  into, 
to  be  surrounded  by  the  universe,  so  to  speak,  Grecian  art, 
philosophy,  morals,  and  government  were  modelled  in  the  open, 
and  there  they  had  their  being  and  found  their  expression. 
Every  phase  of  fortune  of  the  state  and  of  the  family  took  place 
out-of-doors, — whether  marriages  or  funerals,  victories  or  de- 
feats, triumphs  or  losses." 

D'Annunzio 


II 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH 

In  Charlottenburg,  a  suburb  of  Berlin,  there  opened  in  1904 
a  new  type  of  school  to  which  the  Germans  gave  the  name  of 
"  Open-Air  Recovery  School."  The  object  of  this  school  was 
to  give  children  who  were  physically  debilitated  an  opportunity 
to  be  taught  and  to  recover  their  health  at  the  same  time. 
These  children  could  not  keep  up  with  the  work  of  the  regular 
school  and  yet  they  were  not  so  mentally  deficient  that  they 
were  fit  subjects  for  instruction  of  the  kind  given  to  subnormal 
children.  The  treatment  consisted  of  an  outdoor  life,  plenty 
of  good  food,  strict  cleanliness,  warm  and  suitable  clothing,  and 
school  work  modified  in  kind  and  reduced  in  quantity  to  suit 
the  new  conditions. 

The  first  session  of  the  Charlottenburg  school  was  one  of 
three  months  during  which  time  the  children  had  increased 
rapidly  in  weight  and  strength  and  many  had  been  entirely 
cured  of  their  ailments.  Though  these  children  had  spent  less 
than  half  as  much  time  on  their  school  subjects  as  the  pupils 
in  the  regular  school  they  had  not  fallen  behind  them  in  their 
progress;  in  some  cases  they  even  surpassed  them.  This  of 
course  was  a  more  astonishing  fact  than  the  physical  gain.  These 
gratifying  reports  aroused  throughout  Germany  and  in  neighbor- 
ing countries  much  enthusiasm  and  as  a  result  many  other  open- 
air  schools  were  established. 

In  1907  London  opened  its  first  open-air  school  where  again 
the  results  were  as  remarkable  as  in  Germany.  Immediately 
other  open-air  schools  were  begun  in  various  parts  of  England. 

In  1908  the  first  open-air  school  in  the  United  States  was 
started  in  Providence,  Rhode  Island.  A  little  later  in  the  same 
year,  a  "  School  of  Outdoor  Life  "  was  established  in  one  of 
the  parks  of  Boston.  In  January  of  the  same  year  New  York 
143]  5 


6  Teachers  College  Record  [144 

began  an  open-air  school  on  an  abandoned  ferry  boat.    Chicago 
and  other  cities  soon  followed  with  outdoor  schools. 

The  following  table  shows  how  this  movement  has  grown  in 
the  United  States: 

Number  of  cities  having 
School  year  open-air  schools 

1907-1908  3 

1908-1909  7 

1909-1910  IS 

1910-1911  32 

1911-1912  44 

A  few  details  of  several  typical  schools  will  be  of  interest. 

The  Charlottenburg  School 

For  several  years  careful  medical  inspection  in  Germany 
revealed  the  fact  that  among  the  many  children  who  were  back- 
ward in  their  studies  some  were  in  a  debilitated  state  owing 
to  anaemia,  others  from  various  ailments  in  incipient  stages. 
Educators  and  school  physicians  then  devised  this  new  plan  of 
an  open-air  recovery  school.  The  school  was  modeled  upon  the 
idea  of  employing  such  methods  and  having  such  surroundings 
as  would  improve  the  mind  and  cure  the  body  at  the  same  time. 

A  suitable  place  for  the  school  was  found  in  a  large  pine 
forest  on  the  outskirts  of  the  town.  The  sum  of  $8,000  was 
voted  for  erecting  suitable  wooden  buildings.  Five  main  build- 
ings were  erected,  three  of  them  being  plain  sheds  81  feet  long 
and  18  feet  wide.  One  of  these  three  was  completely  open  on 
the  south  side  and  closed  on  the  other  sides  and  could  accommo- 
date 200  children.  The  other  two  sheds  contained  five  class- 
rooms and  a  teachers'  room;  these  buildings  being  closed  in  on 
all  sides,  provided  with  heating  arrangements,  and  only  used  for 
instruction  in  very  cold  or  stormy,  windy  weather.  In  the  class- 
rooms were  simple  tables  and  chairs  of  different  sizes  and 
heights.  The  last  two  of  the  five  buildings  were  large  sheds, 
open  on  all  sides,  fitted  with  tables  and  benches  where  the 
children  could  work  and  eat  during  rainy  and  bright  sunny  days. 

Before  admitting  to  the  school  the  children  chosen  for  the 
experiment  the  teeth  of  each  child  were  examined  and  put  in 
order,  as  otherwise  they  would  not  have  derived  the  proper 
benefit  from  their  food. 


145]  Open- Air  Schools  7 

The  children  arrived  at  school  a  little  before  eight  in  the  morn- 
ing and  upon  reaching  school  each  child  received  a  bowl  of  soup 
and  a  slice  of  bread  and  butter.  The  classes  began  at  eight  with 
an  interval  of  five  minutes  after  every  half  hour  of  teaching. 
The  instruction  was  reduced  to  the  most  necessary  subjects  and 
was  never  given  for  more  than  two  consecutive  hours.  At  ten 
o'clock  each  child  received  one  or  two  glasses  of  milk  and  a 
slice  of  bread  and  butter.  After  this  the  children  could  play, 
do  manual  work,  or  read.  Meanwhile  this  same  process  in 
the  reverse  order  was  carried  on  with  other  children  who  had 
played,  read,  or  done  manual  work  during  the  first  two  hours. 

Dinner  was  served  at  half  past  twelve  and  consisted  of  meat, 
vegetables,  and  soup.  After  dinner  the  children  rested  for  two 
hours ;  absolute  quiet  being  required.  At  three  o'clock  there 
was  served  a  lunch  of  bread,  milk  and  jam.  The  rest  of  the 
day  was  devoted  to  informal  instruction  and  play  such  as: 

1.  Excursions  in  geography,  history,  and  nature  study. 

2.  Practical  problems  in  arithmetic  related  to  gardens,  houses, 

and  so  forth. 

3.  Gardening  and  digging. 

4.  Drawing,  measuring,  building. 

5.  Fashioning  of  tools  and  apparatus. 

6.  Making  of  pottery,  weaving. 

7.  Making  simple  garments,  hemming  towels  and  sheets  used 

in  the  school. 

8.  Washing  dishes  and  towels. 

9.  Assisting  in  cooking  and  serving  of  meals. 
10.  Care  of  human  and  animal  life. 

At  a  quarter  of  six  the  last  meal  was  given  consisting  of 
soup,  bread  and  butter.    After  this  the  children  returned  home. 

The  children  were  carefully  watched  by  the  school  physician, 
attention  being  principally  directed  to  the  condition  of  the  heart, 
blood,  and  lungs,  color  of  the  skin,  and  eyes,  and  muscular  and 
flesh  development.  At  the  end  of  every  two  weeks  the  children 
were  carefully  weighed  and  measured  and  their  condition  com- 
pared with  that  noted  upon  entrance  to  the  school. 

At  the  outset  ninety-five  children  were  chosen.     The  school 


8  Teachers  College  Record  [146 

soon  increased  to  one  hundred  twenty  students,  then  to  two  hun- 
dred fifty. 

The  school  year  at  Charlottenburg  begins  in  April  and  lasts 
until  Christmas,  the  months  of  January,  February,  and  March 
being  given  as  vacation.  Because  the  school  week  and  school 
day  are  longer  than  in  the  ordinary  schools  the  teachers  are 
paid  a  bonus. 

The  educational  results  were  considered  remarkable.  All  of 
the  teachers  agreed  in  noticing  the  mental  alertness  of  the 
children  during  the  hours  of  teaching.  No  less  important  were 
the  improvements  noted  in  the  moral  tone  of  the  children.  Their 
behavior  in  regard  to  cleanliness,  order,  self-help,  punctuality, 
and  good  temper  was  due  quite  as  much  to  the  fact  that  during 
all  of  their  waking  hours  they  were  kept  from  the  influences 
of  the  street. 

England  and  Germany  are  considering  the  advisability  of  hav- 
ing a  constant  interchange  of  indoor  and  outdoor  teachers  so 
the  open-air  methods  may  be  made  known  and  become  popular 
in  ordinary  schools. 

Other  schools  founded  in  Germany,  England,  and  in  Switzer- 
land followed  in  most  particulars  the  features  of  the  school 
at  Charlottenburg.  As  time  has  gone  on  such  modifications 
have  been  made  in  the  Charlottenburg  plan  as  would  better  suit 
the  environment  of  the  school,  the  climate  of  the  country,  and 
the  physical  conditions  of  the  children. 

The  German  open-air  schools  are  called  Waldschulen  from 
their  location  on  forested  land.  Each  German  city  that  started 
such  a  school  located  it  in  the  midst  of  woods  and  fields  outside 
the  city.  The  results  of  such  a  practice  are  bound  to  be  better 
than  in  America  where  the  majority  of  the  open-air  schools 
are  located  in  the  midst  of  the  noisy  city,  on  roofs  of  buildings, 
in  courts,  or  down  on  the  ground  surrounded  by  un sodded  play- 
ground areas  which  turn  every  wind  that  blows  into  a  cloud 
of  dust.  England  and  Switzerland  have  followed  Germany's 
lead  in  locating  the  schools  in  open  woodland  with  adjacent 
sunny  fields  for  playground  space.  These  countries  have  con- 
sidered the  important  and  subtle  influence  of  forest  and  field 
upon  the  aesthetic  and  emotional  nature  of  children. 


147]  Open- Air  Schools  9 

Open-Air  Schools  in  Italy 

The  pleasant  climate  of  Italy  has  made  possible  the  develop- 
ment of  a  different  type  of  open-air  school.  It  is  essentially 
an  outdoor  excursion  school  rather  than  an  outdoor  school 
with  a  fixed  home  as  the  Waldschule  in  Charlottenburg.  It  is 
the  indoor  school  brought  outdoors  by  modifying  instruction  so 
that  it  can  be  carried  on  by  many  excursions  to  points  of  edu- 
cational value  and  interest  in  the  vicinity. 

The  development  of  this  type  of  school  work  in  Italy  was 
favored  by  the  poor  housing  of  the  schools  with  its  attendant 
evils  of  poor  ventilation  and  light.  Many  of  the  schools  are 
located  in  ancient  buildings  not  fitted  for  school  purposes.  This 
outdoor  school  movement  grew  out  of  the  summer  colony 
schools  of  Italy  with  their  well-known  satisfactory  results  and 
the  remarkable  success  of  the  Charlottenburg  experiment  gave 
to  it  added  encouragement.  According  to  an  Italian  report 
summer  colony  schools  were  started  in  Florence,  Italy,  in  1853, 
Ziirich,  Switzerland,  in  1876,  and  in  Frankfort-on-Main,  Ger- 
many, in  1878.  This  points  to  Italy  as  the  first  country  to  value 
an  outdoor  school  life,  for  part  of  the  year  at  least.  The  most 
famous  of  the  outdoor  vacation  schools  started  in  Padua,  Italy, 
and  were  known  as  "  Ray-of-Sun  Schools."  The  name  attests 
to  the  value  placed  upon  sunshine.  The  only  building  these 
schools  made  use  of  was  a  tent-like  structure  open  on  all  sides. 

The  distinct  feature  about  the  open-air  school  today  in  Rome 
is  that  at  any  time  of  the  day  and  year  an  indoor  class  can 
turn  itself  into  an  outdoor  class.  The  nature  of  the  work 
and  the  kind  of  lesson  determines  whether  the  class  shall  leave 
its  indoor  room  and  adjourn  to  the  sunny  roof  or  to  the  school 
yard,  or  go  on  an  excursion.  After  one  class  gets  through  with 
the  roof  another  is  free  to  go  there,  thus  making  it  possible 
for  each  class  to  benefit  a  part  of  each  day  by  outdoor  instruction. 

In  preparing  lessons  the  teachers  are  cautioned  to  keep  in 
mind  the  following  points: 

"  Knowledge  of  local  geography  should  be  gained  intuitively. 
Regular  assignments  in  the  subject  should  be  more  objective, 
more  direct,  and  more  natural,  developing  the  powers  of  ob- 


10  Teachers  College  Record  [148 

servation  and  reproduction.  In  this  way,  by  exciting  the  spirit 
of  criticism,  the  mind  will  become  more  active. 

"  Geometry  too  should  become  a  practical  study  using  all 
existing  forms  (barns,  houses,  towers,  streets,  avenues,  and  so 
forth)  for  observation,  study  and  measurement. 

"Lessons  in  history  should  have  as  a  starting  point  some 
monument  or  some  relic  of  the  past  pertinent  to  the  subject 
in  hand.  The  educational  value  of  such  instruction  is  extraor- 
dinary." 

A  folding-portable  combined  desk  and  chair  has  been  the 
special  feature  of  the  Italian  contribution  to  the  successful  hand- 
ling of  the  open-air  school  problem.  This  piece  of  furniture  is 
light,  compact,  convenient,  and  easily  handled.  It  consists  of  a 
combined  seat  and  desk,  held  together  by  a  framework,  which  is 
easily  folded  into  a  compact  form  about  4  inches  thick,  18  inches 
wide,  and  2}i  feet  long.  The  size  depends  upon  the  age  of 
the  pupil.  It  is  fitted  with  straps  to  attach  it  to  the  child's 
back  in  the  manner  of  a  knapsack.  On  excursions  each  pupil 
carries  his  own  portable  desk  and  chair  without  any  fatigue 
whatever.  Drills  are  given  to  train  the  children  to  detach,  unfold, 
set  up,  fold,  and  attach  these  desks  in  the  shortest  space  of 
time.  When  not  in  use  they  are  stacked  in  the  corridors  of  the 
school  building. 

Because  of  these  folding-portable  desks  and  chairs  any  indoor 
school  can  turn  its  classes  into  the  open  and  there  continue  to 
give  any  sort  of  a  lesson  which  calls  for  the  use  of  desk  and 
chair.  Fitted  with  this  portable  school  furniture  the  pupils  in 
the  high  school,  as  well  as  those  of  the  lower  schools,  can  make 
good  use  of  roofs,  playgrounds,  parks,  and  excursions. 

The  problem  of  making  a  school  or  class  excursion  really  bene- 
ficial to  each  member  of  the  group  has  been  solved  by  the 
invention  of  this  folding-portable  desk  and  chair.  Formerly  the 
children  have  not  gotten  as  much  from  seeing  things  first  hand 
as  they  should;  in  fact,  much  of  the  excursion  work  seemed  of 
doubtful  value.  The  details  in  handling  an  excursion  which  are 
helped  by  the  folding-portable  desk  and  chair  are: 

1.  How  to  keep  the  children  from  becoming  fatigued. 

2.  How  to  maintain  discipline. 


149]  Open- Air  Schools  U 

3.  How  to  manage  so  all  of  the  children  give  full  attention  to 

the  point  in  hand. 

4.  How  to  manage  to  teach  the  whole  group  at  the  same  time. 

5.  How  to  enable  the  pupils  to  take  notes  and  write  down  obser- 

vations and  impressions. 

6.  How  to  maintain  on  an  excursion  the  spirit  of  work  and 

earnestness  shown  by  the  class  when  in  the  classroom. 

The  Horace  Mann  School 

The  Horace  Mann  School  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  New  York  City,  represents  another  type  of 
outdoor  school,  namely,  that  developed  in  the  midst  of  a  busy, 
noisy  city  and  situated  on  the  roof  of  the  school  building.  This 
is  a  very  successful  school  and  is  representative  of  what  can 
be  done  in  surroundings  not  so  ideal  and  quiet  as  those  of  the 
forest  schools  of  Germany.  The  Horace  Mann  School  is  also 
in  the  forefront  in  experimenting  to  see  what  can  be  done  to 
make  the  outdoor  problem  a  success  and  to  overcome  its  dis- 
advantages. The  open-air  classes  in  the  Horace  Mann  School 
are  located  on  the  roof.  The  children  who  make  up  the  classes 
were  chosen  because  they  were  nervous,  or  irritable,  or  anaemic, 
or  undernourished.  There  are  at  present  two  open-air  class- 
rooms, one  having  8  second-grade  and  16  third-grade  pupils, 
the  other  being  made  up  of  15  fourth-grade  children.  There 
is  also  an  open-window  room  of  fifth-  and  sixth-grade  pupils. 
The  open-air  rooms  are  of  concrete  and  steel  structure,  the 
walls  being  concrete.  Each  room  is  closed  on  three  sides  only, 
the  south  side  being  entirely  open  with  a  drop  curtain  to  close 
that  side  in  time  of  storm.  There  is  a  slanting  roof  which  is 
higher  on  the  south  side.  (See  Figs,  i  and  4.)  There  are  win- 
dows in  the  upper  half  of  the  north  side  of  each  room  which  may 
be  opened  or  kept  shut  according  to  the  weather ;  there  are 
also  a  few  such  windows  in  the  east  and  west  walls,  besides  sky- 
lights in  the  ceilings.  The  pleasant  and  cheerful  appearance  of 
these  rooms  is  due  quite  as  much  to  the  admission  of  light 
through  these  large  skylights  as  to  that  from  the  sides  of  the 
room.  Figure  i  shows  the  room  occupied  by  the  second- 
and  third-grade  pupils,  the  third-grade  pupils  working  at  their 


12  Teachers  College  Record  [150 

desks  under  the  direction  of  their  regular  teacher  while  the 
second-grade  children  are  at  the  right  in  the  picture  about  to 
have  a  lesson  from  the  assistant.  Figure  4  shows  the  fourth- 
grade  room.  The  floors  are  of  wood.  Indoor  toilet  rooms 
are  provided  and  also  an  indoor  room  where  children  may  go 
to  get  warm  if  necessary  in  exceptional  cases.  There  are  mov- 
able desks  and  chairs  which  make  it  possible  easily  to  clear  the 
floor  space  for  games  and  exercise.  There  is  also  an  open  space 
on  the  roof  for  play  and  recreation.  (See  Figs.  2  and  3.)  De- 
tails in  reference  to  the  organization  of  the  Horace  Mann  open- 
air  rooms  will  be  given  in  later  chapters. 


Ill 

ORGANIZATION   OF   TYPICAL   OPEN-AIR   SCHOOLS 

INCLUDING  OBSERVATIONS  BASED  ON 

PERSONAL  VISITS 

The  phrase  "  open-air  school "  appUes  to  all  school  rooms 
situated  in  the  open  air,  and  fully  exposed  to  the  air  on  one 
or  more  sides,  providing  merely  shelter  from  wind  and  rain. 
There  is  no  artificial  heating,  the  temperature  of  the  room  always 
being  that  of  the  open  air.  An  "  open  window  "  room  is  one 
which  is  usually  heated  artificially  in  winter  and  supplies  fresh 
air  and  cold  temperatures  through  open  windows,  there  being 
no  entire  side  of  the  room  fully  exposed  to  the  air  from  floor 
to  ceiling. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  collect  facts  which 
are  fully  treated  in  the  books  mentioned  in  the  bibliography  but 
to  add  to  the  material  already  given  in  these  books  some 
observations  based  upon  personal  visits  to  a  number  of 
open-air  schools.  In  connection  with  this  chapter  it  will 
be  well  to  read  some  of  the  standard  books  already  published 
on  this  subject  such  as  "  Open-air  Schools  "  by  Ay  res  where 
the  organization  of  the  older  open-air  schools  is  fully  explained. 
"  Open-air  Crusaders  "  by  Kingsley  will  also  be  of  service. 

Rooms 
In  the  Ethical  Culture  School  of  New  York  City  the  open-air 
classes  are  located  on  the  southern  half  of  the  roof  of  the  regular 
school  building.  This  roof  space  is  enclosed  by  walls  on  the 
north,  east,  and  west,  and  roofed  over.  By  means  of  doors  and 
windows  the  east  side  can  be  made  open.  The  south  side  is 
open.  Two-thirds  of  the  entire  space  is  divided  into  four  class- 
rooms, the  partitions  between  the  classrooms  being  made  by 
means  of  canvas  drops,  movable  blackboards  and  screens ;  the 
rest  of  the  space  makes  up  passage  ways  and  a  play  area.  The 
151]  13 


14  Teachers  College  Record  [152 

arrangement  is  such  that  the  whole  area  can  be  cleared  and  used 
as  play  space  or,  when  desired,  made  into  one  large  classroom. 
The  special  feature  of  the  Ethical  Culture  open-air  school 
is  a  flexible  grading  plan.  The  method  of  handling  the  subjects 
of  study,  the  grading  of  the  pupils  and  the  arrangement  of 
the  roof  space  all  lend  themselves  to  the  carrying  out  of  this  idea. 

The  arrangement  of  rooms  in  the  Horace  Mann  School  has 
already  been  described  on  pages  11-12. 

The  open-air  school  of  Montclair,  New  Jersey,  is  in  a  one- 
room  army  tent.  The  south  side  is  left  open,  the  other  sides 
can  be  open  or  closed  as  desired.  Being  situated  on  the  ground 
just  north  of  an  old  school  building  the  sun  does  not  reach 
the  tent  for  any  length  of  time,  making  it  seem  cold  and  damp. 
The  kitchen,  bathroom,  and  eating  and  sleeping  quarters  are 
situated  on  the  second  floor  of  the  old  school  building.  More 
was  done  for  the  children  in  this  tent  and  better  care  was  taken 
of  them  than  for  any  other  open-air  class  of  poor  children  I 
saw. 

The  Carmine  Street  School  of  New  York  City  is  located  on 
the  roof  of  the  public  baths.  The  room  is  large,  very  light, 
bright,  and  cheerful.  It  has  the  most  attractive  situation  of  any 
open-air  room  in  New  York  City.  There  are  windows  on  each 
side,  small  ones  to  the  east,  while  on  the  south,  west,  and  north 
the  whole  sides  are  taken  up  by  great  windows  reaching  from 
the  ceiling  to  the  floor.  Each  window  is  divided  into  three 
sashes,  which  makes  it  possible  to  throw  up  the  lower  two. 
The  amount  of  window  space  that  is  open  depends  upon  the 
state  of  the  wind  and  weather.  There  are  heating  coils  on  the 
west  side.  There  is  a  small  play  space  on  the  open  roof,  with 
toilet  rooms,  and  kitchen  close  at  hand.  The  desks  face  the 
west;  through  the  windows  before  them  the  children  can 
see  an  attractive  stretch  of  sky  broken  by  the  tops  of  trees  grow- 
ing in  the  adjacent  park. 

There  could  hardly  have  been  chosen  a  more  unfortunate 
location  for  two  open-air  class  rooms  than  is  found  in  Public 
School  33  of  New  York  City.  The  school  building  itself  is  one 
of  the  oldest  ten  in  New  York  City.  Since  there  were  reasons 
why  the  roof  could  not  be  used,  the  Commissioner  of  Parks  and 


153]  Open- Air  Schools  15 

Public  Playgrounds  permitted  the  school  to  hold  two  classes, 
from  9  in  the  morning  to  3  in  the  afternoon,  under  the  covered 
space  belonging  to  the  playground  to  the  south  of  the  school 
building  itself.  Canvas  partitions  enclose  each  room  on  three 
sides,  making  the  rooms  very  drafty  and  cold,  which  is  the 
result  in  every  case  where  these  substitutes  for  walls  are  used. 
The  playground  is  a  constant  source  of  choking  dust,  as  well 
as  noise.  On  days  when  parochial  schools  have  holidays 
and  the  public  schools  are  in  session  the  noise  from  the  play- 
ground makes  teaching  impossible.  At  three  o'clock  the  teach- 
ers and  pupils  must  leave  as  their  permit  for  the  use  of  the 
space  ends  at  that  hour.  Steamer  chairs,  books,  and  clothing 
are  moved  into  the  school  building.  As  the  desks  are  too  heavy 
for  the  children  to  carry,  and  as  the  janitor  says  his  contract 
does  not  read  for  the  carrying  back  and  forth  of  the  furniture 
of  these  classes,  they  are  left  behind. 

The  tuberculous  children  treated  by  Bellevue  Hospital  which 
overlooks  the  East  River  are  housed  on  a  ferry  boat,  called  the 
"  Southfield  "  which  is  moored  to  the  pier  adjoining  the  hos- 
pital grounds.  A  great  deal  has  been  said  by  various  writers 
concerning  the  wonderful  fact  that  for  open-air  schools  almost 
any  sort  of  a  discarded  building  could  be  utilized,  even  an  old 
disused  ferry  boat.  There  is  much  that  is  picturesque,  it  is 
true,  about  the  Southfield.  It  is  different,  many  windowed, 
circular  walled,  and  informal.  In  winter,  however,  it  is  very 
cold  and  windy,  and  in  stormy  weather  its  decks  cannot  be 
used;  neither  is  it  conveniently  arranged.  As  an  informal  struc- 
ture it  serves  its  purpose  very  well.  Its  great  advantage  is  its 
location  on  the  waterfront  with  freedom  from  dust  and  noise, 
two  elements  which  are  so  difficult  to  eliminate  in  an  open-air 
school  in  a  large  city. 

The  Fourth  International  Congress  of  School  Hygiene,  held 
at  Buffalo  in  August,  1913,  in  a  set  of  resolutions  presented  to 
the  United  States  Government  has  petitioned  the  government 
"  To  place  at  the  disposal  of  the  various  States  of  the  Union 
as  many  of  the  discarded  battleships  and  cruisers  as  possible, 
to  be  anchored  according  to  their  size  in  rivers  or  at  the  sea- 


16  Teachers  College  Record  [154 

shore,  and  to  be  utilized  by  the  respective  communities  for  open- 
air  schools,  sanitorium  schools,  and  hospital-sanitoria." 

In  the  Phebe  Anna  Thorne  Open-Air  Model  School  for  Girls 
at  Bryn  Mawr,  Pennsylvania,  an  open-air  class  of  fifteen  normal 
pupils  is  located  in  a  detached  one-story  building,  facing 
south,  constructed  of  wood  and  glass  after  a  Japanese  model. 
The  four  sides  are  open  whenever  the  weather  permits,  though 
on  stormy  days,  one  or  all  of  the  sides  can  be  closed  by  means 
of  glass  screens.  The  class  room  opens  upon  a  large  uncovered 
platform  eight  feet  by  thirty-six  feet  which  is  used  for  gymnas- 
tics, etc.  The  dressing  rooms,  dining  room,  and  kitchen  are 
in  an  adjacent  cottage.  Each  day  the  siesta  is  taken  on  the 
broad  piazza  of  this  cottage.  The  school  is  conducted  by  the 
Department  of  Education  of  Bryn  Mawr  College.  Each  year 
a  new  class  will  be  started  until  there  are  seven  classes  in  all, 
each  class  to  have  its  separate  building  of  the  kind  described 
above. 

Many  other  open-air  classes  were  visited.  A  general  criticism 
of  the  outdoor  rooms  seen  must  be  that  about  half  of  them 
are  gloomy,  dirty,  and  non-aesthetic.  Open-air  rooms  are  not 
favorably  located  unless  the  sun  can  shine  into  them  for  the 
major  part  of  the  day.  The  sun  is  a  great  sterilizing  agent  and 
the  children  have  gone  out-of-doors  to  get  more  sunshine,  and 
more  cold  fresh  air. 

On  the  whole,  tents  are  sunless,  gloomy,  and  bare,  and  they 
will  probably  continue  to  be  so,  for  in  order  to  make  them  water 
tight  a  heavy  outer  covering  of  canvas  must  be  stretched  to 
extend  well  over  the  tent  on  all  sides  thus  shutting  out  direct 
light  rays.  There  is  great  need  for  solving  the  light  problem  in 
the  open-air  rooms.  An  extra  high  opening  on  the  south  will 
aid  in  doing  this,  also  an  arrangement  of  studio  windows  will 
help.  In  the  regular  indoor  rooms  the  walls  and  ceiling  are 
generally  so  colored  as  to  reflect  light  to  the  best  advantage. 
In  the  gloomiest  of  the  open-air  rooms  seen  the  walls  were 
either  dark  gray  or  brown. 

In  a  city  the  open-air  rooms  should  be  located  as  far  away 
from  street  noises  as  possible.    Flapping  canvas  partitions  should 


155]  Open- Air  Schools  17 

be  replaced  with  firm  solid  walls  which  would  not  only  stop  a 
noise  nuisance  but  stop  drafts  as  well. 

For  a  city  roof  school  the  best  room  type  I  have  seen  is 
that  of  the  Horace  Mann  School;  for  the  country  a  building 
patterned  after  the  Phebe  Anna  Thorne  School  at  Bryn  Mawr, 
Pennsylvania. 

Floors 

There  is  need  for  keeping  the  feet  warm.  Most  open-air 
classes  have  either  tile  or  cement  floors  which  are  very  cold. 
There  is  need  for  wooden  floors,  especially  where  the  equipment 
is  meager  and  in  weather  not  severe  enough  for  sitting-out  bags 
to  be  used.  In  a  number  of  schools  comfort  and  physical  wel- 
fare are  sacrificed  for  the  major  part  of  the  day  in  order  that 
the  floor  space  may  be  used  for  occasional  games  and  play.  The 
tendency  to  use  movable  desks  and  chairs,  light  enough  in  weight 
for  the  child  to  handle  so  that  the  floor  may  easily  be  cleared, 
is  a  reason  why  individual  wooden  platforms  are  not  more  gen- 
erally provided.  Individual  wooden  platforms,  with  sides 
boarded  in,  would  protect  the  feet  from  drafts  and  assist  in  solv- 
ing the  sitting-out  bag  problem  in  those  schools  having  tile  or 
cement  floors. 

Equipment 

Desks.  In  most  cases  the  desks  used  were  the  same  as  those 
for  the  indoor  classes.  In  the  public  schools  of  New  York  City 
they  are  the  oldest  and  worst  of  the  discarded  indoor  kind  of 
a  previous  period.  Where  space  is  limited  they  are  usually  mov- 
able so  the  room  can  be  converted  into  resting  or  play  room  as 
required.  In  smaller  towns  where  there  is  plenty  of  playground 
the  open-air  rooms  have  the  same  kind  of  fastened-down  desk 
and  chair  found  in  indoor  rooms.  In  the  Ethical  Culture  School 
the  desk  is  replaced  by  a  swinging  arm  attached  to  the  chair 
which  can  be  pulled  toward  the  pupil  or  pushed  aside  at  will. 
In  a  small  drawer  fitted  below  the  chair  seat  a  few  of  the 
most  needed  books  and  papers  can  be  kept.  In  all  classes  visited, 
where  the  desks  were  pushed  aside  to  provide  play  space  and 
replaced  at  the  end  of  the  period,  the  work  was  done  quickly  and 
efficiently.  In  some  schools  the  teacher  paid  no  attention  to  the 
question  of  the  position  of  desks  and  chairs  with  regard  to  the 


18  Teachers  College  Record  [156 

direction  of  light  rays.  Some  classes  had  their  backs  to  the 
light,  others  faced  it.  One  teacher  wanted  to  have  the  room 
look  informal  and  in  order  to  carry  out  this  feeling  she  per- 
mitted the  children  to  sit  as  they  pleased.  Some  sat  in  the  sun, 
facing  west ;  others  sat  in  the  sun,  facing  north ;  and  still  others 
sat  in  the  shade,  staring  into  the  bright  southern  sky. 

Chairs.  Chairs  should  have  solid  backs  to  protect  the  chil- 
dren's backs.  Most  of  the  chairs  seen  had  open  slat  backs. 
Severe,  deep-seated  colds  may  be  due  to  unprotected  backs.  In 
the  Phebe  Anna  Thorne  School  at  Bryn  Mawr  the  seats  and 
backs  of  the  chairs  have  twice  the  usual  width.  This  gives  the 
children  greater  freedom  of  movement  and  protection. 

Steamer  chairs.  In  all  classes  visited  a  period  of  rest  fol- 
lowed the  noonday  meal.  In  one  school  of  normal  children  it 
took  the  form  of  silent  reading.  In  most  schools,  where  the 
children  tried  to  sleep,  the  angle  of  the  steamer  chair  was  purely 
a  personal  matter  with  each  child.  A  few  preferred  a  nearly 
horizontal  position,  the  majority  tried  to  sleep  and  rest  sitting 
up.  Those  children  who  were  sitting  up  were  very  restless,  felt 
cold  about  the  shoulders,  and  on  severe  days  constantly  evinced 
a  desire  to  cover  up  the  head  by  creeping  into  the  sitting-out 
bags.  One  school  physician  realized  that  real  rest  comes  best 
when  in  a  horizontal  position  and  in  his  school  the  steamer 
chair  was  folded  and  laid  on  the  floor,  a  blanket  placed  upon 
it,  making  a  protected  and  comfortable  bed.  Wrapping  himself 
in  another  blanket  the  child  found  no  difficulty  in  falling  asleep. 
In  this  class  only  one  child  was  too  nervous  to  rest  quietly;  he 
was  given  a  space  away  from  the  others  where  he  might  move 
about  undisturbed.  Horizontal  canvas  cots  are  also  sometimes 
used.     (For  further  details  see  Ayres.) 

Clothing 
Boys'  suits  are  heavier  and  warmer  than  girls'  dresses  and  for 
this  reason  boys  are  better  clothed  to  resist  cold  winds  and  low 
temperature  than  girls.  Fifty  per  cent  of  the  girls  in  open-air 
and  open-window  classes  wear  cotton  and  linen  dresses  all  the 
year  round.  Depending  upon  the  severity  of  the  weather,  the 
usual  extra  wrap  worn  by  these  girls  is  a  sweater.  Girls  from 
poor  homes  wear  woolen  dresses  and  regular  winter  overcoats. 


157]  Open- Air  Schools  19 

Of  the  girls  who  wear  cotton  dresses  and  those  who  wear 
woolen  ones,  the  former  get  chilled  more  quickly,  appear  colder, 
and  have  more  colds  than  the  latter.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  the  ones  wearing  cotton  dresses  have  warmer  undercloth- 
ing than  many  of  those  wearing  woolen  dresses.  It  would 
seem  that  the  wearing  of  cotton  and  linen  dresses  in  cold  weather 
should  be  prohibited  in  these  schools. 

The  sweaters  furnished  by  the  home  are  not  nearly  as  warm 
as  those  especially  designed  for  outdoor  classes.  These  sweaters 
are  grey  in  color,  very  rough  and  hairy  on  the  outside  making 
them  thicker  than  the  ordinary  kind.  At  the  same  time  they 
are  light  in  weight  and  pliable.  A  whole  suit  consisting  of 
toboggan  cap,  gloves,  sweater,  and  jumper  can  be  gotten  all  in 
the  one  color.  (See  Fig.  2.)  The  manufacturers  are  now 
making  a  model  of  a  new  sweater  long  enough  to  come  well 
below  the  knee,  thus  doing  away  with  the  use  of  the  jumper 
where  sitting-out  bags  are  used.    ' 

The  Parka.  In  the  matter  of  garments  especially  suited  to  a 
cold  and  variable  climate  the  Horace  Mann  School  feels  that 
it  has  found  a  solution  in  the  "  Parka."  This  is  an  outside  gar- 
ment fashioned  after  the  lines  and  principles  of  the  outside 
upper  garment  of  an  Eskimo.  (See  Figs,  i  and  3.)  It  is 
made  of  very  closely  woven  khaki.  "  For  a  garment  that  has 
no  warmth  in  itself  it  is  the  warmest  garment  I  have  ever  seen," 
is  the  general  comment  of  those  who  have  used  it.  The  special 
advantages  of  the  Parka  are  due  to  its  being  very  light,  to  its 
not  hindering  the  free  and  usual  movements  of  the  body  because 
of  its  pliability,  and  to  its  keeping  all  of  the  body  heat  from 
escaping.  If  too  much  energy  is  expended  in  keeping  the  sur- 
face of  the  body  warm  most  of  the  benefits  of  being  out  of 
doors  are  lost.  Under  the  Parka  can  be  worn  one  or  two  or  no 
sweaters,  enabling  the  wearer  easily  to  accommodate  the  amount 
of  his  clothing  to  the  mildness  or  severity  of  the  weather.  The 
Ethical  Culture  School  has  followed  the  Horace  Mann  School 
and  adopted  the  Parka.  The  Parka  is  manufactured  and  sold 
by  the  Rogers  Peet  Company  of  New  York  City. 

Some  schools  feel  that  the  clothing  that  the  home  provides 
to  bring  the  child  to  school  is  sufficient  for  wear  in  the  open-air 


20  Teachers  College  Record  [158 

rooms  with  the  frequent  exercising  given  there.  Breakfasting 
in  a  warm  room,  and  then  running  or  walking  to  school  mean 
that  by  the  time  the  children  arrive  at  their  open-air  room  they 
are  very  warm,  resulting  in  the  desire  to  take  off  their  out- 
side wraps,  even  on  very  cold  days,  rather  than  to  put  on  any- 
thing extra  such  as  a  sitting-out  bag.  Mittens  and  caps  are 
taken  off  and  sweaters  and  coats  unbuttoned.  By  ten  o'clock 
the  reaction  has  set  in  and  the  teacher  has  to  remember  to  give 
directions  for  getting  on  more  clothing,  using  mittens  and  sitting- 
out  bags.  If  in  cold  weather  this  was  done  at  the  end  of  fifteen 
minutes  it  would  prove  more  beneficial  than  at  the  end  of  an 
hour.  As  a  rule  the  average  child  would  not  take  it  upon  him- 
self to  put  on  more  clothing,  if  not  urged  to  do  so.  In  some 
schools  instruction  is  given  in  the  necessity  of  keeping  the  body 
at  an  even  temperature  and  of  co-operating  with  the  teacher  on 
this  important  point. 

In  one  school  visited  the  teachers  went  to  another  extreme. 
They  had  been  told  of  the  evil  effects  of  sitting  still  with  the 
body  in  a  state  of  perspiration,  so  when  the  half  hour  play 
periods  come  orders  are  given  to  take  off  all  outside  wraps 
and  leave  them  on  the  chairs.  On  a  windy  day,  with  the  ther- 
mometer at  40  degrees  Fahrenheit,  twelve  girls,  ranging  in  ages 
from  nine  to  thirteen  years,  stood  still  rubbing  their  cold  hands 
and  trying  to  shrink  into  themselves  so  there  would  be  less  of 
them  to  feel  cold.  Finally  one  of  them  got  a  ball  and  threw  it 
to  each  of  the  others  in  turn  while  they  stood  in  a  row.  When 
it  comes  to  open-air  treatment  of  this  kind  it  is  reduced  to 
"  the  survival  of  the  fittest "  scheme  of  a  former  age. 

Gloves.  For  the  same  sum  of  money  woolen  gloves  or  woolen 
mittens  can  be  bought.  The  fingers  are  much  freer  in  the 
gloves.  There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  which  is 
the  warmer,  some  contending  that  the  fingers  are  just  as  warm 
separated  as  they  are  when  together  as  in  a  mitten.  Children 
seem  to  dislike  wearing  mittens  more  than  wearing  gloves.  It 
appears  to  be  easier  to  handle  materials,  write  and  pick  up  things 
when  the  glove  is  worn  than  when  the  hand  is  covered  with 
a  mitten. 


159]  Open- Air  Schools  21 

Footwear.  The  kinds  of  foot  covering  worn  over  the  shoes 
are  felt  overshoes,  felt  lumberman's  boots,  lambskin  overshoes, 
and  arctics.  The  lambskin  overshoes  have  the  fur  inside,  making 
a  shoe  much  too  warm  for  any  but  very  cold  weather.  In 
many  places  they  are  being  discarded  as  they  have  a  tendency 
to  make  the  feet  tender  and  over-sensitive  to  cold.  The  felt 
lumberman's  boots  are  very  satisfactory,  protecting  the  leg  to 
the  knee,  and  having  for  use  in  wet  weather  an  overshoe  of 
rubber.  In  some  classes  each  child  had  been  furnished  with 
arctics  at  $1.35  per  pair  which  were  not  giving  the  warmth  or 
the  wear  of  felt  overshoes  at  half  the  cost. 

Sitting-out  bags.  The  kind  used  in  most  of  the  schools  visited 
was  made  of  a  brown,  pliable,  hairy,  felt-like  cloth  bound  with 
tape  and  fitted  with  snap  fasteners.  It  is  slit  to  the  knee 
in  front  in  order  to  facilitate  getting  in  and  out  of  it.  The 
foot  end  of  the  bag  has  an  outside  covering  of  khaki  reaching 
half  way  to  the  knees.  When  adjusted  the  bag  is  pulled  well 
up  under  the  arms  and  fastened  close  around  the  waist  and 
up  the  front.  The  small  of  the  back  needs  the  protection  which 
the  bags  can  give,  yet  in  any  class  where  the  teacher  is  not 
vigilant  one  half  of  the  bags  will  be  on  the  floor  even  on  the 
coldest  days. 

The  cost  of  the  sitting-out  bag  described  above  depends  upon 
the  size  of  the  child.  The  smallest  bag  costs  $5.50,  the  largest 
$7.50.  Home  made  bags  cost  much  less.  Dr.  Thomas  S.  Car- 
rington  in  an  article  in  the  Survey,  April  23,  1910,  tells  how  to 
make  an  inexpensive  sitting-out  bag. 

Some  teachers  consider  the  sitting-out  bag  cumbersome  and 
it  is  certain  that  most  of  these  bags  are  very  dusty.  One  father 
wrote  the  school  principal  that  he  wished  his  child  to  be  trans- 
ferred to  an  indoor  class  because  the  dust  from  her  sitting-out 
bag  filled  her  lungs  and  kept  her  awake  at  night.  That  night 
the  open-air  teacher  sent  the  bags  home  to  be  beaten  by  the 
parents.  After  this  experience  the  father  withdrew  his  appli- 
cation for  removal. 

Food 

The  value  of  nourishing  and  frequent  meals  in  improving  the 
condition  of  underfed  and  undernourished  bodies  has  been  re- 


22  Teachers  College  Record  [160 

peatedly  demonstrated  by  records  and  charts.  Up  to  within  a 
year  it  was  thought  impossible  even  to  consider  carrying  on 
the  open-air  work  without  feeding,  but  experiments  and  com- 
parisons carried  on  in  New  York  City  for  the  past  year  tend 
to  show  that  though  the  greatest  gain  in  weight  is  gotten  where 
the  children  are  fed,  a  steady,  small  gain  was  made  where  no 
school  feeding  was  carried  on.  As  the  winter  of  1912-1913 
was  not  a  severe  one,  and  as  an  experiment  covering  one  year 
only  cannot  be  conclusive,  more  data  should  be  collected  on  this 
point  before  the  fact  can  be  established.  The  winter  of  1913- 
1914  was  an  unusually  severe  one  and  the  records  for  that  winter 
should  prove  interesting. 

In  winter  extra  demands  are  made  on  the  body  by  the  fre- 
quent exercising  necessary  in  keeping  up  the  bodily  temperature. 
This  is  a  strain  for  underfed  bodies.  The  majority  of  open-air 
classes  are  for  anemic  children  and  those  disposed  to  be  tuber- 
cular who  come  from  homes  where  the  food  is  not  the  best 
fitted  for  body  upbuilding.  Home  conditions  among  the  poor 
have  proven  one  of  the  drawbacks  in  carrying  on  the  work. 
The  school  nurses  and  the  teachers  of  these  children  have  learned 
the  necessity  of  finding  out  the  home  conditions,  resulting  in 
visits  which  have  revealed  that  the  usual  meal  is  bread  and 
cofifee.  Among  the  foreign  born  the  coffee  has  either  whiskey 
or  brandy  put  into  it.  This  abnormal  diet  is  quickly  detected 
as  it  results  in  a  high  temperature  and  an  excessively  high  pulse. 
Teachers  and  the  school  physicians  realize  the  importance  to 
tubercular  and  anemic  children  of  a  wholesome  diet.  In  the 
schools  where  the  food  problem  has  been  satisfactorily  solved  it 
has  been  due  to  the  willingness  of  a  local  charity  organization 
to  defray  the  expenses.  In  many  cases  after  the  society  has 
borne  the  expenses  for  two  or  three  years  it  refuses  to  continue 
its  support.  At  this  point,  in  some  cities,  the  question  of  feeding 
during  school  hours  has  been  dropped;  in  others,  as  in  New 
York  City,  the  home  has  been  asked  to  furnish  a  lunch  or  to 
pay  ten  cents  a  week  which  will  provide  a  daily  lunch  of  crack- 
ers and  milk  (two  crackers  and  a  very  small  cup  of  milk).  It 
has  been  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  teacher  whether  the  milk 
be  heated  or  not  in  cold  weather.     It  does  not  seem  very  prob- 


161]  Open- Air  Schools  23 

able  that  the  school  will  provide  these  children  with  free  food 
however  badly  they  may  need  it  because  such  procedure  would 
bring  the  demands  for  ''  no  favoritism  "  down  upon  the  school 
board. 

The  teachers  of  open-air  and  open-window  classes  have  found 
it  necessary  to  have  mothers'  meetings  in  regard  to  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  sleep.  Demonstrations  have  been  given  to  show  how 
to  prepare  simple  and  nourishing  meals,  emphasis  being  placed 
on  the  lesser  cost  and  the  greater  nutritive  value  of  the  meals 
prepared  at  school  over  those  given  in  the  home.  In  Italian, 
Irish,  and  Syrian  communities  it  was  found  necessary  to  teach 
the  mothers  the  food  value  of  the  various  vegetables  and  to 
demonstrate  the  best  methods  of  preparing  them.  Among  these 
peoples  the  chief  and  constant  article  of  diet  was  either 
spaghetti,  potatoes,  or  white  bread,  according  to  nationality.  The 
children  from  these  homes  were  suffering  from  chronic  consti- 
pation and  at  first  had  to  be  coaxed  and  taught  to  eat  soup, 
turnips,  carrots,  squash,  spinach,  beets,  and  brown  bread.  Mont- 
clair,  New  Jersey,  has  done  more  toward  solving  the  food  prob- 
lem than  any  other  town.  It  has  an  excellent  cook  who  prepares 
the  food  according  to  the  best  known  rules  for  variety,  method, 
quantity,  and  nutritive  and  heat  values.  In  this  school  the  fol- 
lowing recipe  for  bread  has  proved  its  function  of  curing  con- 
stipation. The  recipe  will  make  two  loaves.  It  is  better  when 
it  is  old. 

2  cups  bran    (ordinary  bran — loose — not  in  packages). 

2  cups  white  flour. 

2  cups  graham  flour. 

I  level  tablespoonful  salt. 

I  cup  raisins  or  nuts. 

I  tablespoonful  lard  or  good  drippings. 

I  teaspoonful  baking  soda  dissolved  in  i  tablespoonful  hot  water. 

Equal  portions  sour  milk  and  molasses.     About  i^  cups  of  each 

will  be  required. 
Batter  should  be  thick,  but  not  too  thick  to  drop  from  spoon. 

Bake  slowly  i^  hours.  Put  a  basin  of  water  underneath  bread 
when  it  is  baking  and  the  crust  will  not  be  hard. 

Cost 
Where  the  child  is  fed  and  provided  with  a  warm  clothing 
equipment  the  cost  of  educating  and  caring  for  him  in  open-air 


24  Teachers  College  Record  [162 

schools  is  nearly  three  times  as  great  as  in  the  ordinary  school. 
The  tendency  at  present  is  to  experiment  on  no  feeding  and  no 
extra  clothing;  in  such  cases  the  cost  is  reduced  somewhat.  In 
many  schools  the  children  pay  a  small  sum  each  day  which 
covers  the  cost  of  the  food  eaten. 

The  prices  of  various  articles  of  clothing  used  in  outdoor 
schools  can  be  found  by  consulting  Ayres'  "  Open-air  Schools." 

Size  of  Classes 
In  order  that  outdoor  classes  be  successful  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  they  must  be  small,  not  over  twenty  pupils  to  a 
teacher.  The  necessity  of  looking  after  the  child's  health  as  well 
as  his  studies  necessitates  this  limitation.  It  is  thus  seen  that 
outdoor  classes  are  much  smaller  than  indoor  classes.  In  the 
same  school  system  which  provides  a  teacher  for  twenty  anemic 
pupils,  whose  parents  are  willing  to  permit  or  even  may  have 
requested  open-air  instruction,  the  regular  indoor  teachers  are 
struggling  in  a  more  or  less  poorly  ventilated  room  with  fifty 
children  some  of  whom  are  as  anemic  and  nervous  as  the  twenty 
but  whose  parents  are  afraid  of  the  cold  air.  In  a  class  of  from 
fifteen  to  twenty-five  pupils  each  child  is  bound  to  get  more 
individual  instruction  than  in  the  larger  indoor  classes.  The 
outdoor  rooms  of  the  public  schools  of  New  York  City  have 
from  three  to  eight  grades,  a  grade  often  being  represented  by 
one  or  two  pupils.  This  means  practically  individual  attention. 
Children  who  have  been  backward  for  years  are  brought  up  to 
grade  by  this  means. 

Program  of  Studies 

Although  outdoor  pupils  spend  less  time  on  school  subjects 
than  normal  school  children  they  have  not  fallen  below  them 
in  their  school  records.  To  meet  outdoor  conditions,  as  well  as 
the  physical  and  nervous  state  of  the  pupils,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  a  reduced  time  schedule.  The  German  plan  of  reducing 
formal  instruction  to  two  hours  a  day  has  not  been  carried 
out  in  most  American  schools. 

School  programs  will  be  found  in  Ayres  "  Open-Air  Schools," 
and  in  the  Reports  issued  by  superintendents  of  the  various 
cities  where  open-air  schools  have  been  established. 


163]  Open- Air  Schools  25 

Methods  of  Teaching 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  those  methods  of  teaching  which 
make  foa-  constant  changing  from  work  to  play  and  from 
rest  to  recreation  are  best  suited  to  open-air  instruction.  When- 
ever possible  those  features  of  a  lesson  are  sought  which  can 
be  turned  into  a  game  or  which  can  be  carried  out  in  an  activity 
of  some  sort. 

As  the  Horace  Mann  open-air  classes  are  located  on  the  roof 
at  some  distance  from  the  regular  indoor  classrooms,  they  have 
felt  the  necessity  of  making  themselves  known  to  the  rest  of 
the  school.  One  of  the  most  interesting  plans  adopted  was  to 
post  now  and  then,  on  the  bulletin  board  in  the  main  hall  of 
the  school,  an  illustrated  notice  of  the  weather  conditions  on 
the  roof. 

Writing  with  gloves  on  has  been  found  beneficial  to  the 
subject  of  penmanship.  The  thickness  of  the  gloves  caused 
the  child  to  find  it  difficult  to  grip  pencil  or  pen  in  a  firm 
enough  grasp  to  cramp  the  muscles ;  the  results  have  been  a 
free  arm  movement, — this  was  quite  contrary  to  the  general 
expectation.     (See  Fig.  4.) 

In  the  open-air  classes  the  motivation  in  English,  arithmetic, 
history,  geography,  and  nature-study  seems  more  natural,  more 
related  to  the  social  life  of  the  child  than  in  the  indoor  classes 
having  the  same  subject  matter;  there  seem  to  be  more  prob- 
lems that  force  themselves  upon  the  child  for  his  solution  than 
occur  in  an  indoor  life.  This  point  in  itself  would  appear  the 
most  significant  one  in  the  value  of  open-air  over  indoor  in- 
struction. 

New  ideas  and  methods  of  teaching  will  come  in  time  from 
the  accumulated  experiences  of  open-air  instructors  who  are 
experimenting  with  their  material.  At  present  many  teachers 
are  simply  holding  indoor  classes  in  the  open  air  as  far  as 
method  of  teaching  is  concerned.  In  Chapter  VI  this  topic  will 
be  considered  at  greater  length. 

Recreation 
The  amount  of  time  given  to  play  and  to  directed  exercise  in 
different  schools  varies  greatly,  not  only  in  time  but  in  kind. 
Some  schools  have  a  five-minute  supervised  dance  or  gymnastic 


26  Teachers  College  Record  [164 

period  at  the  close  of  each  twenty-five-minute  recitation,  with  the 
usual  fifteen-minute  recess  in  the  middle  of  the  morning  when 
something  to  eat  is  taken.  Other  schools  have  each  day  a  ten- 
minute  recess  for  free  play,  two  ten-minute  breathing  exercise 
periods,  and  one  forty-five  minute  sleeping  period. 

The  greatest  amount  of  daily  recreation  noted  in  any  of  the 
schools  visited  consisted  of  two  thirty-minute  periods  for  prac- 
ticing and  playing  co-operative  games,  such  as  baseball,  basket- 
ball, and  football ;  one  half-hour  rest  period ;  and  one  forty- 
minute  period  the  first  half  of  which  was  devoted  to  lunch,  the 
rest  to  listening,  in  a  warm  room,  to  a  story  read  by  one  of 
the  teachers. 

Social  Phases 
The  open-air  school  especially  lends  itself  to  developing  social 
co-operation  and  helpfulness.  During  the  lunch  period  a  few 
children  each  day  may  take  their  turn  in  waiting  upon  and  in 
looking  after  the  needs  of  the  others.  Motivation  here  is  of  a 
direct  and  imperative  kind.  A  few  serve  the  majority  because 
by  so  doing  all  do  not  have  to  expose  feet  and  legs  to  the  colder 
air  of  the  room  by  getting  out  of  their  sitting-out  bags.  During 
luncheon  a  child  will  tell  a  story.  Here  the  motive  for  drill  in 
oral  English  appears  plainly  to  each  child. 

Health  Precautions 
As  the  experiences  in  open-air  procedure  accumulate  certain 
special  facts  in  hygiene  are  being  noted.  When  a  child  becomes 
a  little  chilly  and  needs  external  heat  to  warm  him  it  has 
been  found  that  unless  he  takes  off  all  extra  outdoor  clothing 
while  in  the  house  it  results  in  bronchitis.  The  use  of  various 
kinds  of  foot-warmers  and  of  soapstones  has  been  found  to  be 
detrimental  in  the  majority  of  cases.  If  because  of  poor  cir- 
culation or  an  anemic  condition  the  pupil  needs  extra  stimulus 
to  keep  up  his  circulation  it  has  been  proven  that  a  few  special 
short  gymnastic  exercises  are  more  beneficial  than  application 
of  external  heat  by  means  of  soapstones  or  footwarmers.  The 
best  methods  of  quickly  warming  the  fingers,  toes,  legs,  arms, 
and  chest  by  physical  exercise  have  developed  some  new  and 
interesting   gymnastic   movements.      Certain    games    have   been 


1-'  ■S 

I  o 

I  •§ 

'-  3 

O  o 

^^  0) 


o  s 


165]  Open- Air  Schools  27 

found  to  be  especially  eflfective  in  developing  lung  capacity, 
straightening  the  back,  and  giving  muscular  coordination  and 
poise. 

The  following  are  some  good  corrective  games  and  exercises 
now  in  use : 

(a)  For  lung  development 

1.  Blow  up   an   imaginary   paper  bag.     In  bursting  the 

blown-up  bag,  arm  and  back  muscles  are  brought 
into  play. 

2.  Blow  off  all  the  seeds  on  an  imaginary  dandelion. 

3.  Smell  of  an  imaginary  rose,  first  closing  one  nostril, 

then  the  other. 

4.  After  the  floor  has  been  washed  and  dried  have  the 

children  lie  on  the  floor  flat  on  their  stomachs,  the 
class  being  divided  into  two  groups  facing  each  other. 
A  pingpong  ball  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  space 
between  the  two  groups.  The  game  is  carried  on  by 
blowing  the  ball.  Any  one  who  has  to  touch  the 
ball  forfeits  for  his  side.  This  game  is  splendid  for 
the  back  and  neck  muscles  as  well  as  for  developing 
lungs  and  expanding  chest.  This  is  a  good  exercise 
for  spring  and  fall  months.  The  others  are  especially 
fitted  for  winter. 

(b)  For  muscles  of  the  arm,  leg,  back,  and  so  forth 

1.  Pick  up  imaginary  snow.     Round  it  into  hard  snow- 

balls.    Throw  them. 

2.  Stand  on   tiptoes,   reaching  up   as   far  as  possible  in 

order  to  lift  the  body  and  place  the  chin  on  an  imag- 
inary bar.  This  exercise  is  called  "  lifting  your  own 
weight."  After  each  trial  it  releases  the  blood  and 
sends  it  rushing  through  the  body.  It  is  an  excellent 
exercise  for  warming  the  body  and  correcting  the 
harm  done  by  a  cramped  sitting  position. 

3.  One  of  the   best   exercises   known    for   warming   the 

fingers  is  to  tap  sharply  into  the  palm  of  one  hand 
with  the  fingers  of  the  other.  In  this  exercise  the 
finger  tips  should  be  held  together  firmly  or  the  blood 
will  not  be  forced  into  the  ends  of  the  fingers. 


28  Teachers  College  Record  [166 

4.  Put  the  hands  on  the  hips.    Balance  on  one  foot.    Point 

forward  and  downward  with  the  toes  of  the  other 
foot.  Bend  the  knee  pulHng  the  leg  up  as  high  as 
possible  without  losing  balance.  Then  kick  forward 
vigorously.  This  exercise  will  send  the  blood  into 
the  toes.  It  is  better  in  its  results  and  more  lasting 
than  the  use  of  soapstone  and  footwarmers. 
(The  last  three  exercises  are  especially  designed  for 
keeping  the  body  warm  in  cold  weather.) 

5.  The  rhythm  of  the  multiplication  tables  can  be  utilized 

in  the  arm  and  leg  exercises  of  the  usual  gymnastic 
drill. 

6.  In  the  free  play  time  the  pupils  love  to  hang  from 

the  swinging  rings  and  walk  on  the  balance  bars 
and  on  chalk  lines,  unconsciously  gaining  poise  and 
grace. 

Those  children  who  have  had  at  home  coffee,  brandy,  whiskey, 
and  beer  show  the  effects  of  these  stimulants  by  an  alarming 
pulse  rate,  fever,  sleeplessness,  and  restlessness.  As  these  con- 
ditions were  especially  found  among  the  children  who  were  suf- 
fering from  tuberculosis  it  was  sometime  before  the  school  physi- 
cians and  nurses  learned  that  the  home  and  not  the  disease 
was  largely  to  blame  for  these  symptoms.  Even  after  the 
parents  have  promised  to  mend  matters,  lapses  occur.  Plenty 
of  wholesome  food  furnished  at  school,  instruction  to  mothers, 
and  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  child  are  all  essential  to 
the  success  of  this  work. 

When  the  children  in  open-window  and  open-air  classes  get 
colds  they  are  very  deep-seated,  prolonged  and  stubborn  ones, 
A  record  of  these  colds  reveal 

(a)  That  girls  get  more  colds  than  boys. 

(b)  That  girls  who  wear  cotton  or  linen  dresses  get  more  colds 

than  girls  who  wear  woolen  ones. 

(c)  That  some  of  the  mothers  let  their  children  go  out  of  doors 

in  winter  after  taking  a  hot  bath, 

(d)  That  children  who  by  nature  have  hot  skins  cannot  stand 

drafts   or   sudden   cold   weather   without   getting   severe 


167]  Open- Air  Schools  29 

colds.  They  are  not,  on  the  whole,  fit  pupils  for  out-of- 
door  classes. 

(e)  That  the  children  of  the  very  poor  sleep  either  in  rooms 

which  have  no  windows  or  in  rooms  the  windows  of 
which  are  kept  closed,  thus  making  these  children  more 
susceptible  to  colds. 

(f)  That  the  children  of  the  very  poor  need  baths  and  a  thor- 

ough rubbing  of  the  skin  in  order  to  get  the  skin  in  con- 
dition to  react  properly  to  the  fresh  cold  air. 

(g)  That  children  who  suffer  from  constipation  get  colds  more 

readily  than  those  who  do  not. 

Health  Results  of  Open-Air  Treatment 
In  tabulating  the  results  achieved  in  the  various  open-air 
schools  certain  of  them  are  constant  and  others  appear  variable. 
Formerly,  one  of  the  first  rules  laid  down  for  the  guidance  of 
those  about  to  start  such  a  school  was  that  warm  clothing,  much 
sleep,  frequent  exercise,  frequent  and  nourishing  meals,  and 
shelter  from  winds  and  storms  were  absolutely  necessary  to  carry 
out  the  outdoor  scheme.  It  still  remains  true  that  the  more 
carefully  these  points  are  followed  the  more  successful  the 
results  become,  but  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  gain  has  been 
made  even  in  those  classes  where  no  extra  feeding,  little  exercise, 
a  limited  clothing  equipment,  and  heavy  drafts  are  found.  Con- 
stant factors  in  open-air  school  life  are  the  gain  in  weight, 
strength,  chest  expansion,  hemoglobin,  and  physical  activity.  An- 
other point  that  has  shown  the  advantage  of  the  outdoor  over 
the  indoor  class  is  the  matter  of  fatigue.  It  does  not  seem  to 
make  any  difference  whether  arithmetic  is  taught  at  nine  o'clock 
or  at  twelve,  the  children  appearing  to  do  equally  good  work 
at  any  time  of  day.  In  those  cases  where  an  afternoon  nap 
was  formerly  indispensable,  at  the  end  of  six  months  in  the 
open-air  class  these  children  not  only  no  longer  needed  naps 
but  they  gradually  got  to  the  point  where  they  could  not  sleep 
in  the  afternoon.  They  were  not  fatigued  enough.  We  are  told 
by  teachers  and  advocates  of  open-air  instruction  that  there  is 
no  doubt  that  these  pupils  have  healthier  appetites,  sleep  much 
better,  and  are  more  alert  and  vigorous  mentally  than  when  they 
began  in  the  open-air  class.    Since  these  teachers  hold  mothers' 


30  Teachers  College  Record  [168 

meetings  in  which  they  urge  open  windows  in  the  bedrooms, 
and  a  change  in  diet,  laying  stress  on  the  injurious  effects  of 
coffee  and  alcoholic  stimulants  and  begging  for  their  discontinu- 
ance, there  should  be  taken  into  consideration  the  fact  that  if 
the  same  crusade  had  been  started  when  these  same  pupils  were 
in  indoor  classes  there  would  at  that  time  have  been  an  improve- 
ment in  sleep  and  appetite. 

The  New  York  City  public  schools  have  chosen  certain  indoor 
classes  of  normal  children  for  purposes  of  comparison  with  the 
corresponding  outdoor  grades.  These  indoor  classes  are  called 
"  control "  classes.  The  conditions  in  these  control  rooms  are 
as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  as  in  the  outdoor  classes  with 
the  exception  of  the  outdoor  feature.  Each  child  who  is  ad- 
mitted to  an  open-air  class  has  a  card  allotted  him  on  which  a 
record  is  made  of  his  age,  sex,  color,  nationality,  height,  weight, 
per  cent  below  weight  for  height,  haemoglobin,  chest  measure- 
ments, physical  defects  (tonsils,  enlarged  glands,  adenoids,  poor 
posture,  etc.),  condition  of  teeth,  chest,  grade,  and  scholarship. 
From  time  to  time  subsequent  examinations  are  made  and  the 
results  recorded  on  his  card,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  a  final 
examination  is  made.  On  the  back  of  the  card  a  weekly  record 
is  kept  of  his  weight.  Each  child  who  enters  a  control  class 
has  a  card  which  is  exactly  similar  and  on  which  his  record  for 
the  year  is  kept.  Some  interesting  facts  have  been  brought 
out.  The  easiest  record  to  make  and  to  plot  on  a  chart 
is  that  of  gain  or  loss  in  weight.  For  each  pupil  week  by  week 
and  month  by  month  such  records  have  been  kept.  In  the  out- 
door classes  these  records  have  been  a  valuable  asset  for  they 
have  been  used  as  the  great  argument  in  favor  of  open-air  work. 
Each  pupil  in  these  classes  has  gained  steadily,  some  more,  some 
less,  from  the  beginning  of  school  in  September  until  the  begin- 
ning of  spring.  The  average  gain  is  one-half  pound  per  child 
per  week.  When  the  child  was  at  school  he  gained  in  weight, 
when  at  home  for  more  than  three  days  he  lost.  During  each 
vacation  there  was  a  decided  loss  in  weight  which  made  the  line 
on  the  chart  give  a  sharp  downward  angle.  From  the  middle 
of  March  on  to  the  end  of  school  in  June  the  loss  of  weight 
begins  and  the  charts  generally,  without  exception,  show  a  down- 
ward curve.     These  charts  have  been   most  carefully  kept  in 


169]  Open-Air  Schools  31 

classes  of  very  poor,  underfed  children.  Just  how  much  of 
the  gain  in  weight  is  due  to  an  extra  meal  and  how  much  to 
fresh  air  is  not  known.  In  considering  the  gain  in  weight  the 
normal  gain  for  any  age  due  to  growth  has  been  allowed  for. 
The  loss  of  weight  during  the  spring  months  is  never  enough 
by  June  to  put  the  child  at  the  same  weight  that  he  had  in  Sep- 
tember when  he  entered  school.  How  much  of  this  difference 
is  the  natural  one  due  to  a  change  to  lighter  clothing  has  not 
been  determined. 

Hemoglobin  tests  have  also  been  made.  Those  records  which 
tell  the  history  of  the  child's  home  condition,  health,  habits, 
school  progress,  and  personality  are  the  most  valuable  ones  kept 
so  far.  To  get  even  these  facts  is  difficult.  Even  in  those 
schools  where  the  clientele  is  such  that  it  is  possible  to  send  out 
questionnaires  only  a  small  percentage  of  them  are  answered  and 
returned.  In  some  schools  the  information  can  be  gotten  only 
by  the  visits  to  the  homes  by  the  teacher,  the  school  nurse,  and 
the  social  worker.  Beginning  with  the  Twelfth  Annual  Report 
of  the  New  York  City  Public  Schools  (1910)  scientific  charts 
and  tables  have  been  printed  each  year  showing  the  results  of 
the  open-air  school  work.  In  few  other  school  systems  are  the 
results  of  their  open-air  school  work  tabulated  so  systematically 
for  general  distribution.  The  New  York  City  charts  showing 
the  relation  between  the  control  and  the  outdoor  classes  with 
regard  to  increase  and  decrease  in  hemoglobin;  gain  in  weight 
of  the  control,  outdoor  feeding,  and  outdoor  non-feeding  classes ; 
and  the  relation  of  anemia  to  poverty  are  all  very  interesting. 
Final  conclusions  should  not  be  drawn  until  experiments  have 
been  carried  on  for  a  period  of  five  years  at  least.  It  is  only 
by  careful  experiments  that  real  knowledge  of  the  results  of 
outdoor  instruction  can  be  gotten. 

In  the  Horace  Mann  School  tests  such  as  the  following  have 
been  reported  •}  "  Two  third-grade  classes,  as  similar  as  it  was 
possible  to  have  them,  were  compared  for  a  period  of  six  months. 
One  class  was  an  outdoor  class,  the  other  a  regular  indoor  class. 
The  two  classes  were  compared  in  respect  both  to  physical  im- 
provement and  mental  improvement,  with  the  following  results : 

'For  further  details  see  "Effect  of  Outdoor  and  Indoor  School  Life  on  the  Physical  and 
Mental  Condition  of  Children"  by  Harold  Brown  Keyes,  M.  D.  Report,  Fourth  Inter- 
national Congress  on  School  Hygiene,  Buffalo,  Augtist,  1913. 


32 


Teachers  College  Record 


[170 


Physical  Improvement,  1912-13 


Average  age  at  beginning  of  tests 

Duration  of  tests 

Average  gain  in — 

Weight 

Height 

Girth  of  chest 

Girth  of  chest  expanded 

Breadth  of  chest 

Depth  of  chest 

Lung  capacity 

Strength,  right  arm 

Strength,  left  arm 

Strength,  upper  back 

Strength,  chest 


Indoor 


Outdoor 


8  yrs.  6  mos. 
6  mos 


1.6  kg. 
2.6  cm. 

1.3  cm. 
1.5  cm. 
0.9  cm. 
0.0... . 
8.0  cu. 

1.4  kg. 
1.4  kg. 
2.0  kg. 
2.8  kg. 


or  3.5  lbs. 
or  1.0  in. 
or  0.5  in. 
or  0.6  in. 
or  0.37  in. 


m 

or  3.0  lbs. 
or  3.1  lbs. 
or  4.4  lbs. 
or  6.2  lbs. 


8  yrs.  4  mos. 
6  mos. 

1.7  kg.  or  3.7  lbs. 

2.8  cm.  or  1.1  in. 

1.8  cm.  or  0.74  in, 
1.7  cm.  or  0.7  in. 
0.2  cm.  or  0.07  in. 
—0.4  cm.  or —0.13  in. 

5.9  cu.  in. 

0.8  kg.  or  1.7  lbs. 

2.1  kg.  or  4.5  lbs. 
2.0  kg.  or  4.4  lbs. 

3.2  kg.  or  7.0  lbs. 


"  Indoor  class  improved  more  in  four  of  these  measurements. 
Outdoor  class  gained  more  in  six  of  these  measurements.  Classes 
gained  the  same  in  strength  of  back.  Outdoor  class  gained  more 
in  height,  weight,  and  girth  of  chest." 

"  We  had  wondered  if  the  eyesight  of  the  outdoor  children 
would  suffer  any  from  added  exposure  to  sun  and  the  necessity 
of  looking  at  blackboards  and  books  on  which  sun  might  shine. 
In  no  case  did  we  find  any  defect  coming  on  during  the  term 
such  as  would  be  shown  with  Snellen  test  type. 

"  A  record  of  contagious  diseases  was  kept  during  the  year. 
In  the  three  outdoor  classes  there  were  five  cases  of  contagious 
diseases;  in  the  indoor  classes  there  were  fourteen  cases  of  con- 
tagious disease.  Again  in  this  case  it  is  only  fair  to  keep  in 
mind  that  there  were  more  children  in  the  indoor  classes  and 
therefore  more  opportunities  for  contagious  disease.  If  these 
cases  are  reduced  to  percentages  the  record  of  outdoor  children 
shows  that  12.5%  had  contagious  disease  while  17.9%  of  indoor 
children  had  contagious  disease.  Another  very  significant  point 
is  that  no  contagious  diseases  '  went  through  '  an  outdoor  room 
as  happened  in  one  of  the  indoor  rooms.  This  seems  to  me  to 
be  in  itself  a  powerful  argument  in  favor  of  outdoor  schools." 

Mental  tests  indicating  progress  in  the  usual  school  subjects 
were  also  given.  From  the  outline  below  it  will  be  seen  that 
"  in  formal  English  the  third  grade  outdoor  class  not  only  had 
higher  averages  than  the  indoor  class  but  improved  20%  whereas 


171] 


Open- Air  Schools 


33 


the  indoor  class  improved  only  13%  during  the  year."  In  arith- 
metic the  outdoor  class  improved  26%  against  6%  for  the 
indoor  class. 

Mental  Improvement,  1912-13 


Number  of 
pupils 


Average 


Dec. 


May 


Improve- 
ment 


In  formal  English: 
Open  air 

Indoor 

In  arithmetic: 
Open  air 

Indoor 


18  in  Dec. 
12  in  May. 
^22  in  Dec. 
,27  in  May. 

fl4  in  Dec. 
^22  in  May. 
r28inDec. 
[24  in  May. 


Per  cent 
>      37 

.       35 


48 
69 


Per  cent 
57 

48 


68 
75 


Per  cent 
20 

13 


20 
6 


It  is  the  ambition  and  practically  the  pledge  of  the  teacher 
of  open-air  classes  to  be  able  to  put  a  child  at  any  time  into 
the  indoor  class  of  his  grade  and  have  him  go  on  there  as 
well  as  if  no  change  of  class  had  been  made.  The  majority  of 
the  pupils  of  an  open-air  class  are  put  indoors  at  the  end  of 
one  year,  but  in  those  cases  where  the  child's  condition  has 
not  shown  enough  improvement  a  second  and  even  a  third  year 
is  allowed  in  the  outdoor  class.  The  gain  in  the  second  year 
is  greater  from  the  start,  not  only  in  weight  but  in  mental 
attitude  and  interests.  Some  very  satisfactory  cases  have  been 
followed  up  in  the  indoor  classes  which  have  shown  the  value 
of  two  or  three  years  out-of-doors.  These  children  were  formerly 
way  below  age,  staying  two  years  in  a  grade,  indifferent  to 
school,  and  having  no  interest  in  continuing  any  kind  of  school 
work.  After  the  outdoor  period  these  same  pupils  ranked  well 
toward  the  top  of  the  indoor  class,  which  fact  gave  them  such 
pleasure  and  confidence  that  by  earnest  work  they  were  soon 
beyond  their  normal  grade. 

Many  schools  have  begun  with  one  open-air  class  and  have 
then  added  a  new  one  each  year  until  the  eighth  grade  has  been 
reached.  The  problem  of  getting  started  and  equipped  has  often 
occupied  the  attention  of  the  teachers  to  the  exclusion  of  any 


34  Teachers  College  Record  [172 

real  mental  testing  to  show  what  really  has  been  accomplished 
from  month  to  month  and  year  to  year.  If  the  class  could 
keep  up  with  the  corresponding  indoor  grade,  have  more  play, 
and  no  homework  the  experiment  was  considered  successful  and 
worth  the  extra  cost. 

Teachers 

The  teachers  of  open-air  classes  should  be  keen,  resourceful, 
sympathetic,  careful  of  all  the  little  things,  and  quick  to  notice 
the  symptoms  of  children.  More  depends  upon  the  right  teacher 
than  upon  the  other  advantages  of  the  school,  such  as  feeding, 
extra  clothing,  and  weather. 

The  services  of  a  physician,  trained  nurse,  and  dentist  are 
necessary  for  at  least  part  of  the  time. 

Such  remarks  as  the  following  testify  to  what  teaching  in 
the  open  air  has  done  for  the  teacher :  "  No  teacher  who  has 
taught  in  the  open  air  will  ever  want  to  go  back  to  indoor  work." 
"At  night  I  am  not  tired  and  *  dragged  out '  as  I  used  to  be,  yet 
when  I  go  to  bed  I  fall  right  away  into  a  sound,  refreshing 
sleep."  The  results  for  the  pupils  are  bound  to  be  better  when 
the  teacher  has  lost  that  nervous  irritability  which  comes  from 
confinement  for  long  hours  in  a  badly  ventilated,  overcrowded 
room.  The  outdoor  teacher  has  more  energy  and  strength  to 
prepare  lessons  and  material  for  her  class.  At  a  recent  meeting 
of  the  open-air  teachers  of  New  York  City  public  schools  the 
supervisor  said  that  the  teachers  of  a  city  system  should  be 
looked  after  as  well  as  the  pupils.  The  appalling  percentage  of 
tubercular  cases  is  about  as  true  of  teachers  as  of  any  other 
class  of  workers.  It  looks  as  if  in  the  future  the  teachers  who 
need  outdoor  treatment  will  be  instructors  chosen  for  the  open- 
air  classes. 


IV 

OPEN-WINDOW  ROOMS 

"  Open-window  room,"  "  fresh  air  room,"  "  low  temperature 
room,"  and  "  cold  air  room "  are  all  different  names  for  the 
same  kind  of  room,  namely,  one  where  the  windows  are  kept 
open  and  where  artificial  heating  is  used  only  in  severe  weather. 
In  some  of  these  rooms  the  whole  south  wall  is  given  over  to 
window  space  from  ceiling  to  floor,  the  windows  being  so 
hinged  and  fitted  with  cords  and  pulleys  as  to  enable  them  to 
be  raised  flat  against  the  ceiling.  These  windows  have  not 
proven  to  be  an  entire  success,  however,  as  in  stormy  weather 
they  have  to  be  wholly  closed.  Rooms  having  windows  on  one 
side  only  have  fewer  drafts  than  corner  rooms.  On  the  other 
hand  corner  rooms  have  some  desirable  features  that  the  others 
do  not  have;  they  permit  of  a  more  even  flow  of  air  through 
them  and  all  parts  of  the  room  can  be  kept  at  a  more  uniform 
temperature.  If  winds  and  storms  make  it  necessary  to  close 
the  one  side,  the  other  can  be  kept  open.  Windows  that  swing 
from  side  to  side  on  a  pivot,  and  that  can  be  so  adjusted  as 
to  let  in  air  and  at  the  same  time  throw  off  the  wind  seem  to 
be  the  best  solution  to  the  draft  problem  reached  as  yet. 

John  H.  Van  Pelt,  an  architect  of  New  York  City  who  is 
much  interested  in  open-air  school  architecture,  believes  that 
the  best  window  for  such  a  school  is  one  which  is  divided  into 
three  sashes.  Each  of  these  sashes  he  would  hang  by  pivots  in 
the  middle  of  both  sides ;  in  time  of  driving  rain  the  middle  sash 
of  each  window  at  least  could  be  open  at  a  slant,  the  top  of 
the  sash  to  swing  inward  and  the  bottom  of  it  outward  and 
down.  He  also  suggests  that  a  glass  marquise  hung  over  the 
windows  would  admit  light  and  yet  in  time  of  storm  keep  out 
rain  and  snow. 

Professor  Frederic  S.  Lee  in  an  article  on  "  Fresh  Air "  in 
the  Popular  Science  Monthly  of  April,  1914,  makes  the  follow- 

173]  35 


36  Teachers  College  Record  [174 

ing  interesting  statement  in  reference  to  drafts :  "  Keep  room 
air  in  motion.  .  .  .  Air  in  motion  promotes  efficiency.  Ac- 
custom yourselves  to  drafts,  and  especially  to  big  drafts.  A 
small  blast  of  cold  air  directed  against  a  small  area  of  warm 
skin  may  do  harm,  but  the  larger  the  current  the  more  the 
harm  gives  way  to  benefit.  Air  of  constantly  uniform  tempera- 
ture is  monotonous  and  debilitating.  An  occasional  and  con- 
siderable cooling,  a  flushing  of  the  room  by  a  sudden  large 
inrush  of  outside  air  is,  like  a  cool  bath,  stimulating." 

In  large  cities  open-window  rooms  will  probably  be  more 
popular  than  open-air  rooms  because  of  the  small  expense  to 
install  them  and  the  ease  with  which  such  rooms  can  avoid 
extremes  of  temperature,  provided  the  disadvantages  of  the 
open-window  room  can  be  remedied  by  careful  experiment.  It 
is  easier  for  the  open-window  room  to  fail  than  for  the  open-air 
room  because  of  the  difficulty  in  regulating  drafts  and  in  keep- 
ing the  same  temperature  in  all  parts  of  the  room.  In  general 
open-window  rooms  must  have  drafts  in  order  to  regulate  the 
temperature,  but  unfortunately  these  drafts  are  usually  small 
blasts  of  air  rather  than  the  large  currents  which  Professor 
Lee  believes  to  be  so  helpful.  All  this  can  be  avoided  in  open-air 
rooms  where  the  small  drafts  are  absent  and  where  the  large 
currents  of  air  can  sweep  the  entire  room.  The  biggest  problem 
of  the  open-window  room  is  this  question  of  drafts. 

When  one  makes  a  change,  to  go  from  one  extreme  to  another 
has  its  value.  Indoor  rooms  may  be  considered  as  being  at 
one  extreme  and  open-air  classes  at  the  other.  The  disadvan- 
tages of  indoor  rooms  are  more  likely  to  be  remedied  by  chang- 
ing to  open-air  rather  than  to  open-window  rooms.  Open- 
window  rooms  seem  more  to  favor  the  tendency  to  get  back 
into  the  ruts  of  indoor  classroom  practice  than  do  open-air  rooms. 
In  open-air  rooms  one  must  radically  change  certain  methods 
of  procedure  while  in  open-window  rooms  one  can  exist  with 
indoor  methods. 

Special  Points  Noted  When  Visiting  Open-Window  Classes 

One  morning  when  the  outside  thermometer  registered  38 
degrees  F.  two  open-window  rooms  in  a  small  city  were  visited. 


175]  Open- Air  Schools  37 

The  sun  shone  brightly  and  the  air  was  cold  and  dry.  The 
warmth  in  these  rooms  was  noticeable  at  once,  and,  on  looking 
at  the  thermometers,  one  read  67  degrees,  the  other  68  degrees ; 
the  windows  were  nearly  closed  and  yet  most  of  the  children 
were  bundled  up  in  sweaters.  The  teachers  had  no  notions 
as  to  which  were  the  best  temperatures  for  open-window  rooms. 
One  said  that  she  felt  sure  that  the  windows  of  her  room  were 
not  opened  early  enough  in  the  morning.  On  questioning  the 
janitor  it  was  learned  that  the  windows  were  only  raised  ten 
minutes  before  the  teacher  was  expected  to  reach  school  in  the 
morning. 

In  the  Horace  Mann  School  the  school  physician  feels  that  the 
temperature  in  the  open-window  room  should  not  go  below  50 
degrees  F.  When  that  temperature  is  reached  the  heat  is 
turned  on  automatically.  Down  to  that  point  the  room  tempera- 
ture is  that  of  out-of-doors, — varying  from  it  not  over  two 
degrees  at  most. 

One  school  that  wanted  to  start  an  open-window  room  found 
that  before  it  could  get  children  for  the  room  it  had  to  promise 
the  parents  that  the  children  would  not  have  to  sit  in  drafts. 
The  principal  solved  the  difficulty  by  having  window  screens 
measurmg  eighteen  inches  in  height  covered  with  cheesecloth. 
The  windows  were  usually  kept  open  to  the  height  of  the  screens. 
At  times  the  whole  ventilating  system  of  the  building  was  thrown 
out  of  order  by  these  open  screened  windows  as  evidenced  by 
the  necessity  of  covering  with  cheesecloth  the  outlet  register 
in  order  to  break  the  strong  drafts  that  blew  down  it.  It 
thus  appears  that  satisfactory  devices  for  avoiding  drafts  in 
open-window  rooms  are  difficult  to  find. 

The  question  of  clothing  for  use  in  open-window  rooms  has 
not  been  satisfactorily  solved.  Some  rooms  are  allowed  to  get 
as  cold  as  the  lowest  outdoor  temperature,  others  can  hardly  be 
called  cold  air  or  low  temperature  rooms.  The  lower  the  tem- 
perature the  more  clothing  must  be  provided.  Chicago  found, 
even  with  the  thermometer  at  zero,  "  that  whatever  clothing 
would  safely  bring  the  children  to  school  was  more  than  enough 
for  protection  in  the  open-air  classrooms  where  games  were  fre- 
quent."    Some  teachers   are  trying  this   winter  whether  army 


38  Teachers  College  Record  [176 

blankets  folded  about  the  legs  will  serve  as  ample  covering. 
The  children  in  the  open-window  room  of  the  Horace  Mann 
School  have  had  two  and  three  winters  in  the  open-air  room  on 
the  roof  and  thus  have  brought  sitting-out  bags  along  with  them 
which  are  being  used.  The  only  complaint  that  their  teacher 
has  made  in  regard  to  the  sitting-out  bags  is  that  they  are 
cumbersome  and  she  cannot  get  over  the  feeling  that  much 
time  is  wasted  in  getting  in  and  out  of  them. 

Some  open-window  classes  are  given  a  lunch  at  recess  of 
hot  soup  or  cocoa  and  a  sandwich.  The  children  chosen  for 
these  rooms  are  mostly  nervous,  anemic,  and  undernourished. 
The  rooms  visited  have  not  been  in  existence  long  enough  to 
show  what  method  is  good  and  wha^t  should  not  be  done,  or 
to  demonstrate  any  special  gain  by  the  pupils.  However,  in 
comparison  with  the  regular  indoor  classes  there  is  a  difference 
that  is  noticeable.  The  pupils  of  the  open-window  classes  are 
quieter,  have  a  more  restful  attitude,  and  give  a  quicker  brain 
response.  The  indoor  classes  in  the  same  school  give  the  feel- 
ing at  once  of  nervous  tension  not  only  in  the  lessons  but  in 
keeping  order.  The  teacher  of  the  Horace  Mann  open-window 
room  says  that  her  pupils  are  more  sane  and  wholesome  in  their 
attitude  than  any  class  she  has  taught.  Their  memories  are 
so  good  and  their  interest  is  so  keen  that  they  do  not  need  the 
drill  usually  given  indoor  classes  nor  will  they  accept  a  slow 
rate  of  progress  in  their  studies.  They  seem  to  have  an  in- 
satiable mental  appetite. 


V 

POINTS  IN  CONTROVERSY  CONCERNING  OPEN-AIR 

SCHOOLS 

Many  questions  have  been  raised  in  connection  with  open-air 
and  open-window  rooms.  Among  important  questions  to  be 
answered  definitely,  inchiding  those  in  controversy,  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  Are  the  physical  benefits  derived  from  open-air  experi- 
ments lasting?  Are  the  sick  children  cured  permanently  or  are 
their  ills  merely  temporarily  arrested? 

2.  Are  the  mental  benefits  lasting?  Are  they  progressively 
continuous,  or  are  they  the  result  of  over-stimulated  interests 
and  excitement  due  to  the  novelty  of  the  new  conditions  and 
surroundings  ? 

3.  Is  a  city  justified  in  spending  in  open-air  school  experi- 
ments three  times  as  much  money  per  child  as  is  necessary 
indoors  in  order  to  educate  a  few  sickly  children  and  in  neglect- 
ing the  majority  of  normal  children? 

4.  Is  it  fair  to  compare  the  results  of  open-air  schools  with 
the  regular  schools  when  we  recall  that  the  children  in  the 
open-air  schools  are  taught  in  small  classes  of  about  twenty  and 
are  well-fed,  well-poised,  well-rested,  well-aired,  and  little 
fatigued,  while  the  children  in  the  regular  schools  must  work 
in  classes  of  fifty,  or  even  seventy,  to  one  teacher,  in  poorly 
ventilated  rooms,  with  less  satisfactory  conditions  in  reference 
to  food,  clothing  and  rest?  Indoor  school  conditions  are  not 
at  all  as  favorable  as  those  in  the  open-air  schools, 

5.  Are  we  using  the  best  and  most  economical  methods  of 
presenting  school  material  in  our  regular  school  classes  if  it 
is  true  that  in  the  open-air  schools  pupils  seem  to  be  especially 
benefited  by  changes  in  the  ordinary  methods  of  instruction  and 
by  short  periods  of  instruction?  Does  a  shorter  day  with 
intensive  work  as  found  in  indoor  schools  accomplish  as  much 
177]  39 


40  Teachers  College  Record  [178 

or  more  than  the  outdoor  ten-hour  day  found  in  Germany 
with  frequent  periods  of  recreation  interspersed  between  short 
recitation  periods? 

6.  Does  the  open-window  school  accomplish  as  much  as  the 
open-air  school?  Could  the  ordinary  school  be  easily  trans- 
formed into  an  open-window  school  and  get  better  results  than 
now? 

7.  To  what  extent  does  low  temperature,  and  the  stimulation 
due  to  it,  explain  the  success  of  the  open-air  school? 

8.  Is  moral  deficiency  a  condition  that  would  be  benefited  by 
open-air  school  treatment? 

9.  Can  we  have  open-air  upper  grade  and  high  school  classes, 
or  are  we  limited  principally  to  the  primary  grades?  Can  the 
more  advanced  school  subjects  be  adapted  to  treatment  in  open- 
air  schools? 

ID.  Is  open-air  school  work  proportionately  more  beneficial 
in  the  elementary  grades  than  in  the  later  years? 

11.  Is  it  worth  while  in  America  to  have  a  ten-hour  day  for 
the  open-air  school  as  in  Germany? 

12.  Will  children  who  have  spent  years  in  an  open-air  school, 
and  who  appear  to  be  advanced  enough  and  well  enough  physi- 
cally to  return  to  ordinary  school  conditions,  be  able  to  return 
to  the  regular  school  room,  or  will  their  earlier  open-air  training 
tend  to  unfit  them  from  going  on  successfully  with  their  work 
in  the  indoor  school?  Will  the  methods  of  the  ordinary  school 
room,  which  are  so  intensive,  put  such  a  child  at  a  great  dis- 
advantage ? 

13.  Will  children  who  have  been  brought  up  in  an  open-air 
school  tend  in  after  life  to  follow  out-of-door  occupations  ?  Will 
they  be  handicapped  if  they  undertake  indoor  pursuits? 

14.  Should  the  period  of  rest  and  sleep  provided  in  many 
open-air  school  programs  come  before  or  after  luncheon? 

15.  Should  we  have  an  open-air  class  where  children  may  go 
who  have  whooping  cough? 

Mr.  Frank  J.  Bruner,  of  Chicago,  in  an  article  in  the  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  National  Education  Association  for  191 1,  brings 
up  a  number  of  interesting  points  which  show  that  there  are 
still  other  important  questions  to  be  answered  in  connection 
with  the  cause  of  the  success  of  open-air  schools.     He  states 


179]  Open-Air  Schools  41 

that  repeated  experiments  prove  that  weak,  anemic,  and  tuber- 
cular children  and  adults  are  benefited  by  living  out-of-doors 
but  are  made  worse  and  even  sicken  and  die  by  being  confined 
in  heated   school  rooms,  bedrooms,  and  living  rooms. 

While  the  above  fact  has  been  demonstrated,  the  reason  why 
this  is  so  is  difficult  to  find.  It  is  not  alone  because  the  open-air 
is  purer  than  the  air  indoors.  This  is  shown  by  the  following 
experiments  which  are  here  very  briefly  stated : 

(a)  Carbon  dioxide.  Careful  experiments  have  proven  that 
only  under  extraordinary  conditions  is  the  amount  of  carbon 
dioxide  in  a  classroom,  lecture  room,  or  living  room  sufficient 
to  affect  in  any  detectable  manner  the  physiological  processes  or 
the  mental  work  of  an  individual. 

(b)  Oxygen  and  ozone.  Pure  air  does  not  mean  that  the 
air  shall  be  rich  in  oxygen  and  ozone.  More  oxygen  does  not 
necessarily  mean  more  vitality.  Even  a  slight  percentage  over 
the  normal  of  oxygen  or  ozone  is  injurious  to  lung,  throat, 
and  nose. 

(c)  Anthropotoxins.  By  experiments  on  animals  it  has  been 
proven  that  organic  matters  thrown  oflf  by  respiration  are  not 
responsible  for  the  devitalization  of  the  air. 

(d)  Humidity.  The  result  upon  the  body  of  varying  per- 
centages of  humidity  has  not  been  worked  out  long  enough  to 
prove  any  definite  theory.  Concerning  the  physiological  eflFects 
of  high  and  low  humidity  on  temperatures  ranging  from  sixty 
to  seventy-two  degrees  Fahrenheit  we  know  little  or  nothing 
definitely;  the  only  result  known  to  be  true  at  present  is  that 
the  higher  the  percentage  of  humidity  the  lower  the  tempera- 
ture should  be  for  comfort. 

In  summing  up  the  results  of  experiments  on  the  effects  of 
stale,  confined  air.  Professor  Frederic  S.  Lee,  in  an  article  in 
the  Popular  Science  Monthly  for  April,  1914,  reaches  this  con- 
clusion :  "  That  the  evil  effects  exerted  upon  human  beings 
by  air  that  has  become  vitiated  by  human  beings  result  not  from 
a  lack  of  oxygen,  not  from  an  increase  of  carbon  dioxide,  not 
from  the  presence  of  an  organic  poison,  not  from  any  chemical 
features  of  such  air  acting  through  the  lungs  on  the  tissues,  not 
in  any  manner  from  the  rebreathing  of  such  air,  but  solely  from 
the  physical  features  of  excessive  heat  and  excessive  humidity 


42  Teachers  College  Record  [180 

interfering  with  the  proper  action  of  the  skin  in  regulating 
bodily  temperature.  The  problem  of  bad  air  has  thus  ceased 
to  be  chemical  and  pulmonary,  and  has  become  physical  and 
cutaneous." 

In  view  of  these  experiments,  Mr.  Bruner  concludes  that  the 
success  of  the  open-air  school  is  not  due  to  pure  air  alone. 
He  has  sought,  therefore,  those  other  factors  which  must  be 
prominent  in  explaining  the  success  of  this  type  of  school. 
He  finds  them  to  be  as  follows: 

(a)  General  freedom 

(b)  l^ack  of  restraint 

(c)  Feeding 

(d)  Rest  and  sleep. 

Mr.  Bruner's  interesting  observations  suggest  to  us  a  large 
field  for  investigation.  Since  the  pure  air  alone  is  not  so 
important  as  we  had  thought,  we  are  led  to  experiment  to 
verify  Mr.  Bruner's  conclusions  and  to  see  if  there  are  still 
other  factors  that  explain  the  success  of  the  open-air  schools. 
We  must  ask  also  if  the  indoor  schools  would  be  far  more  suc- 
cessful if  we  introduced  there  greater  freedom,  lack  of  restraint, 
feeding,  and  periods  of  rest  and  sleep.  If  so,  then  the  open-air 
movement  will  have  made  a  great  contribution  to  our  methods 
of  carrying  on  indoor  instruction.  To  test  this  it  will  be  worth 
while  to  try  indoors  the  full  open-air  program,  with  its  short 
instruction  periods  interspersed  with  rest  and  recreation;  like- 
wise to  try  an  intensive  indoor  program  out-of-doors.  This 
will  soon  show  us  whether  the  open-air  or  something  else  is 
the  vital  factor  in  the  outdoor  movement. 

Mr.  Bruner  also  found  that  the  chief  air-polluting  agents 
in  cities  are: 

(a)  Dust 

(b)  Soot 

(c)  Gases  from  factories  and  chimneys 

(d)  Bacteria,  as  well  as  noxious  gases,  arising  from  waste 
products  such  as  ashes,  garbage,  and  sewage. 

With  urban  conditions  such  as  these  the  necessity  of  experi- 
ment is  urged  to  see  if  the  open-air  schools  situated  in  the 
country,  preferably  in  the  woods,  are  more  successful  than  those 
in  the  city. 


VI 


MODIFICATION  IN  INDOOR  METHODS  OF  INSTRUC- 
TION TO  SUIT  OPEN-AIR  CONDITIONS 

In  order  that  the  open-air  school  work  may  be  carried  on 
most  effectively,  it  seems  desirable  to  suggest  certain  modifica- 
tions in  our  indoor  methods  of  instruction  in  order  that  there 
may  be  no  handicap  to  the  student  of  the  open-air  school.  These 
modifications  will  be  most  necessary  in  cold  weather  when  the 
problem  of  keeping  the  child  warm  and  free  from  exposure 
is  the  most  important  one.  The  location  of  the  open-air  school 
may  likewise  cause  a  modification  in  certain  methods.  If  the 
open-air  room  is  situated  on  a  noisy  street  certain  changes  in 
methods  are  necessary  which  need  not  be  considered  for  an 
open-air  room  in  a  quieter  location. 

In  general,  during  the  winter  months,  all  recitations  and  class 
exercises  must  be  of  much  shorter  duration  than  those  given 
in  the  indoor  school.  This  is  brought  about  by  the  necessity 
of  giving  the  pupil  frequent  periods  for  relaxation  and  for 
keeping  up  an  adequate  circulation  of  the  blood. 

The  following  suggestions  are  made: 

I.  In  the  cold  months  of  the  year  the  open-air  pupil  is 
handicapped  in  all  written  work  on  account  of  the  heavy  cloth- 
ing and  outside  wraps  which  he  must  wear.  Written  exercises 
of  all  kinds  including  his  computations  in  arithmetic  may  thus 
sufiFer  somewhat.  During  the  winter,  it  seems  advisable,  there- 
fore, to  replace  careful  writing  with  the  pen  or  pencil  by  some 
form  of  writing  that  will  exercise  the  larger  muscles  of  the 
body  and  be  less  affected  by  the  restricting  clothing.  A  device 
that  suggests  itself  as  serviceable  would  be  to  have  the  children 
make  much  more  use  of  a  blackboard,  either  standing  at  the 
regular  blackboards  or  having  an  individual  blackboard  at  the 
disposal  of  each  pupil.     The  top  of  the  closed  desk  could  easily 

181]  43 


44  Teachers  College  Record  [182 

be  fitted  with  a  blackboard  on  its  lower  side  which  could  be 
brought  into  service  by  merely  raising  the  top  of  the  desk. 
In  a  large  free  hand  the  pupil  could  thus  do  a  certain  amount 
of  writing  and  calculating.  Such  a  blackboard,  two  feet  long 
and  one  and  half  feet  wide,  would  be  very  serviceable.  In 
using  it  the  pupil  would  have  the  advantage  of  not  being  obliged 
to  lean  over  the  desk  as  in  the  case  of  writing  with  a  pen  or 
pencil. 

I  do  not  hesitate  to  suggest  also  the  novelty  of  introducing 
the  typewriter,  the  operation  of  which  would  permit  the  student 
to  sit  upright  and  have  opportunity  to  exercise  a  number  of 
muscles  that  would  be  unused  in  the  ordinary  writing  with  a 
pen.  The  activity  required  in  typewriting  would  be  especially 
favorable  in  the  cold  weather.  Investigations  have  already  been 
carried  on  by  teachers  of  English  which  show  that  young  chil- 
dren can  make  more  progress  in  English  and  in  spelling  by 
the  use  of  the  typewriter  than  by  the  ordinary  means  of  writing 
by  hand.  The  undeveloped  muscles  of  young  children  always 
cause  handwriting  to  be  a  slow  tedious  process.  The  type- 
writer has  the  advantage  of  emphasizing  legibility  and  accuracy. 
Mistakes  stand  out  very  prominently.  As  classes  progress  it  is 
one  of  the  most  important  ways  to  emphasize  the  value  of  good 
form  in  writing.  In  no  other  way  does  proper  paragraphing 
and  punctuation  stand  out  so  boldly.  The  typewriter  would 
also  serve  nicely  in  spelling  tests  from  dictation,  and  as  a  means 
of  taking  notes  of  any  kind  which  might  be  given  by  the  teacher. 
The  combination  of  the  typewriter  with  the  blackboard  above 
mentioned  would  no  doubt  do  away  with  some  of  the  present 
disadvantages  of  the  open-air  methods.  The  typewriter  should 
be  especially  useful  if  the  open-air  scheme  is  extended  to  the 
higher  classes,  including  the  high  school,  where  written  work 
plays  so  prominent  a  part.  It  is  here  the  intention,  however, 
to  recommend  it  for  the  elementary  classes  as  well.  If  the  above 
blackboard  and  typewriter  plan  is  not  feasible  it  will  be  well 
as  a  general  principle  during  the  winter  months  to  modify  meth- 
ods of  instruction,  so  as  to  avoid  as  far  as  possible  the  necessity 
of  long  detailed  exercises  involving  much  writing. 

In  the  fall  and  in  the  spring,  when  the  weather  is  warm,  the 


183]  Open-Air  Schools  45 

children  could  have  ample  exercise  in  the  usual  handwriting. 
It  is  not  meant  by  the  above  suggestion  to  do  away  with  hand- 
writing, but  only  to  make  it  possible  to  do  in  cold  weather  work 
that  otherwise  might  be  slighted. 

2.  In  general,  in  the  open-air  school,  methods  of  exercising 
pupils  orally  should  be  increased  and  emphasized.  This  can  be 
applied  in  practically  all  subjects  including  arithmetic,  spelling, 
geography,  and  English. 

Such  exercises  as  singing  and  gymnastics  can  be  considerably 
increased  in  an  open-air  curriculum,  and  can  best  be  given  by 
frequent  repetitions  between  the  regular  classes  rather  than 
by  single  assignments  per  day,  as  is  the  usual  practice  in  the 
indoor  school. 

3.  In  a  subject  like  English,  oral  exercises,  including  oral 
reading  and  dramatic  representation,  can  well  be  increased.  In 
geography,  map  drawing  at  the  blackboard  and  modeling  can  be 
given  more  prominent  parts.  The  geography  work  may  be  aided 
also  by  excursions  to  points  of  geographical  interest  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  school.  The  same  excursions  are  also  helpful 
in  connection  with  the  work  in  history.  The  excursion  idea 
should  be  much  more  developed  in  American  open-air  schools 
than  it  has  been  up  to  the  present.  In  Italy  the  excursion  is 
the  chief  feature  of  the  open-air  school.  This  is  much  more 
possible  in  Italy,  however,  than  in  America  due  to  the  milder 
climate.  Lessons  in  civics,  in  fine  arts,  in  current  events,  and 
in  industries  are  thus  possible,  through  visits  to  public  places, 
galleries,  court  rooms,  public  institutions,  factories,  public  works, 
and  so  forth.  The  boys  in  the  Italian  schools  are  provided  with 
the  combination  portable  chair  and  desk  which  may  easily  be 
carried  on  the  back  and  set  up  in  any  convenient  place  out-of- 
doors.  In  this  way  the  Italian  teacher  can  establish  his  school- 
room temporarily  in  a  public  park  or  before  some  noted  public 
monument.  So  far  as  American  conditions  are  concerned,  such 
excursions  would  have  to  be  confined  principally  to  the  fall 
and  spring  months,  except  in  the  south  and  southwest. 

4.  Especially  in  the  open-air  school,  the  use  of  the  stereopticon 
and  the  moving  picture  as  a  means  of  instruction  will  be  valu- 
able. Such  devices  will  be  especially  serviceable  for  open-air 
schools  in  noisy  districts. 


46  Teachers  College  Record  [184 

5.  A  subject  like  nature  study  should  be  carried  on  only  in 
the  fall  and  spring  months  when  the  work  can  be  done  out-of- 
doors.  Gardening  is  a  subject  which  may  well  be  emphasized 
for  the  open-air  pupil. 

6.  In  arranging  the  curriculum  it  is  very  important  to  make 
such  an  adjustment  that  the  cold  months  of  the  year  will  be 
used  most  effectively  for  those  subjects  which  can  best  be  taught 
during  that  time.  The  out-of-door  scheme  will  probably  result 
in  favoring,  even  for  a  private  school,  a  forty-week  school  year. 
If  children  remain  in  excellent  health  through  the  out-of-door 
experiment  there  is  less  reason  for  the  long  vacation.  A  forty- 
week  or  a  forty-five  week  school  year  should  be  no  hardship 
if  the  open-air  school  proves  to  be  what  we  have  a  right  to 
expect. 

The  open-air  curriculum  especially  favors  the  introduction  of 
modern  foreign  languages  by  the  direct  method  of  instruction. 


VII 

SOME  TESTS  FOR  DETERMINING  THE  EFFICIENCY 
OF  THE  METHODS  OF  OPEN-AIR  SCHOOLS 

It  is  very  desirable  to  test  the  efficiency  of  the  open-air  school 
especially  in  comparison  with  the  regular  indoor  school.  It  is 
especially  valuable  to  know  in  what  particulars  the  pupils  of 
the  open-air  schools  are  in  advance  of  the  regular  pupils.  To 
determine  these  matters  physical  and  mental  tests  should  be 
given  frequently  to  classes  of  the  same  age  and  grade  in  both 
indoor  and  outdoor  schools.  To  be  of  greatest  value  the  tests 
should  be  given  to  children  of  the  same  average  state  of  health 
in  both  schools.  It  will  not  be  especially  helpful  to  test  invalids 
in  an  open-air  school  and  to  compare  these  results  with  normal 
children  in  the  indoor  school.  So  far  as  possible  it  is  necessary 
that  the  groups  of  children  to  be  compared  start  at  about  the 
same  place  with  respect  to  age,  grade,  development,  and  health. 
These  tests  to  be  of  value  should  be  applied  to  large  numbers 
of  pupils. 

Physical  Tests 

1.  Gain  in  weight.  Is  it  more  for  the  outdoor  pupil  than  that 
normally  expected  in  a  growing  child?  Gain  in  weight  may 
be  taken  as  an  index  of  one's  nutrition.  Comparison  of  indoor 
with  outdoor  pupils  should  be  of  much  value  in  this  test. 

2.  Lung  capacity.  As  this  is  a  test  of  vital  capacity  it  will 
be  especially  important  for  pupils  who  have  been  more  than  a 
year  in  an  outdoor  school. 

3.  Examination  of  the  blood  to  show  gain  in  hemoglobin. 
Especially  favorable  results  should  be  found  here  in  the  case  of 
open-air  pupils.  Outdoor  pupils  who  are  fed  in  school  should 
be  compared  carefully  with  those  outdoor  pupils  who  are  not  fed. 

4.  State  of  the  organs  of  digestion.  The  frequent  periods  for 
light  nourishment  in  many  of  the  open-air  schools  make  this  an 
interesting  test.     Also  keep  a  record  of  appetite. 

1851  47 


48  Teachers  College  Record  [186 

5.  Tests  of  hearing,  of  sight,  and  of  the  other  special  senses. 
The  test  of  hearing  will  be  important  for  all  pupils  in  outdoor 
schools  situated  on  noisy  streets.  The  test  of  sight  will  be 
especially  needed  for  outdoor  pupils  whose  work  has  been  done 
to  a  large  extent  with  the  sun  shining  on  their  desks  and  books. 

6.  Tests  for  physical  fatigue.  An  especially  interesting  test 
in  view  of  the  numerous  periods  for  rest  afforded  the  open-air 
pupils.  Tests  and  continued  observations  for  nervousness,  irrita- 
bility, ill-temper,  and  so  forth. 

7.  Tests  of  posture. 

8.  Tests  of  movements,  including  quickness  or  rate,  accuracy 
or  precision.     Steadiness  of  motor  control. 

9.  Tests  of  endurance. 

ID.  Tests  of  muscular  strength,  grip,  and  so  forth. 

11.  Careful  observation  to  indicate  freedom  from  minor  com- 
plaints such  as  colds.  Also  a  record  of  freedom  from  usual 
children's  diseases  such  as  measles,  scarlet  fever,  headaches, 
indigestion,  and  adenoids.  It  is  interesting  to  know  whether  or 
not  the  increased  health  of  open-air  pupils  gives  them  through 
their  greater  resisting  powers  any  immunity  from  these  diseases. 
Records  should  also  be  kept  to  show  the  relation  between  the 
spread  of  contagious  diseases  in  open-air  and  indoor  classes. 

12.  Medical  tests  to  see  if  outdoor  children  have  any  special 
tendency  toward  troubles  caused  by  exposure  such  as  colds,  rheu- 
matism, sore  throats,  and  tonsilitis. 

13.  Careful  observations  of  bodily  temperature,  especially  in 
cold  weather,  would  also  be  of  value.  Symptoms  of  chilliness 
such  as  shivering,  cold  hands,  chattering  of  teeth,  and  blue  lips 
should  be  carefully  watched  and  noted.  From  observations  in 
various  outdoor  classes  I  believe  that  these  matters  are  often 
neglected  or  ignored  by  the  teachers.  I  saw  a  number  of  chil- 
dren who  were  so  cold  that  they  could  not  get  any  profit  out 
of  their  school  work.  Often  children  do  not  know  when  they 
are  too  cold. 

14.  Record  of  sleep. 

All  of  the  above  tests  are  rather  simply  carried  out.  The 
book  on  "  Mental  and  Physical  Tests  "  by  Whipple  will  be  sug- 
gestive in  reference  to   accurate  methods  for  conducting  such 


187]  Open-Air  Schools  49 

tests.     Pyle's  "  Examination  of  School  Children  "  will  also  be 
helpful  in  this  connection. 

Tests  Relative  to  Conduct 
It  is  important  to  know  whether  or  not  the  wholesome  life 
in  the  open  air  has  any  marked  influence  on  the  conduct  of 
pupils.  This  amounts  to  asking  whether  or  not  physical  condi- 
tions in  the  ordinary  schoolroom  tend  to  favor  misconduct.  The 
following  tests  seem  to  be  worth  attention : 

1.  A  careful  record  in  reference  to  obedience  to  the  demands 
of  the  teacher  or  to  the  demands  of  fellow  students.  A  record 
of  each  student's  ability  to  get  along  in  school  with  his  fellow 
pupils.  The  presence  of  disputes,  quarrels,  and  so  forth  should 
be  carefully  noted. 

2.  General  good  spirit  toward  work  and  willingness  to  do 
things.     Loyalty  to  teacher  and  school. 

3.  General  attitude  toward  life  and  the  world  as  exhibited  in 
cheerfulness,  optimism,  or  their  lack. 

4.  Record  of  cases  of  marked  misconduct,  such  as  stealing, 
lying,  willful  destruction  of  property. 

5.  Record  of  improvement  in  morals.  This  will  include  items 
not  mentioned  in  paragraph  4,  such  as  swearing,  sexual  dis- 
turbances. 

6.  Tests  of  initiative,  so  far  as  this  is  testable. 

7.  Tests  of  alertness,  wide-awakeness,  and  so  forth. 

Mental  Tests  Suggested  by  the  Usual  School  Record 
Children  of  approximately  equal  health,  grade,  and  age  in 
both  indoor  and  open-air  schools  should  have  their  actual 
progress  tested  as  shown  by  the  usual  school  marks  in  subjects 
such  as  arithmetic,  reading,  spelling,  geography,  history,  and 
science.  In  a  subject  like  arithmetic  it  will  also  be  valuable 
to  test  the  work  of  both  indoor  and  outdoor  pupils  in  some 
such  special  way  as  the  Courtis  test,  or  the  Stone  test.  In  Eng- 
lish composition  it  would  be  valuable  to  supplement  the  tests 
given  by  the  ordinary  school  grades  by  some  careful  measuring 
such  as  that  possible  by  the  scale  developed  by  Professor  Hille- 
gas.  Handwriting  could  likewise  be  measured  in  accordance 
with  the  method  of  Professor  Thorndike. 


50  Teachers  College  Record  [188 

In  addition  to  the  tests  in  the  ordinary  school  subjects  above 
mentioned,  care  should  be  taken  to  obtain  adequate  tests  of 
manual  work,  such  as  sewing,  cooking,  manual  training,  or 
drawing.  The  results  should  be  of  interest  as  these  subjects  are 
usually  not  taught  out-of-doors  under  conditions  as  favorable 
as  those  indoors.  The  tests  in  physical  training  will  also  be  of 
value  as  they  will  probably  favor  the  outdoor  pupil. 

Mental  Tests  Suggested  by   Psychologists 

A.  Tests  of  Attention  and  Perception 

1.  Range  of  visual  attention 

2.  Cancellation 

3.  Counting  dots 

4.  Reading  complicated  prose 

5.  Simultaneous  reading,  and  writing  and  so  forth 

B.  Tests  of  Description  and  Report 

1.  Description  of  an  object 

2.  Fidelity  to  report 

C.  Tests  of  Association,  Learning,  and  Memory 

1.  Uncontrolled  association 

a.  Part-wholes 

b.  Genus-species 

c.  Opposites 

d.  Computation 

2.  Mirror-drawing 

3.  Substitution 

4.  Rote  memory 

5.  Logical  memory 

D.  Tests  of  Suggestibility 

1.  Size-weight  illusion 

2.  Progressive  lines 

3.  Progressive  weights 

4.  Illusion  of  warmth 

E.  Tests   of  Invention  and  Imagination 

1.  Ink  blots 

2.  Linguistic  invention 

3.  Word  building 

4.  Interpretation  of  fables 


189]  Open-Air  Schools  51 

F.  Tests  of  Intellectual  Equipment 

1.  Size  of  vocabulary 

2.  Range  of  information 

G.  Tests  for  reasoning  not  included  in  above  lists 

H.  Tests  to  show  ability  to  understand  the  printed  page. 

Note. — For  descriptions  of  these  tests  and  directions  for  giving 
them  consult  Whipple's  "  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Measure- 
ments." For  names,  descriptions,  and  so  forth,  of  instruments  that 
can  be  used  for  making  these  measurements  see  "  Catalogue  of  Scien- 
tific Instruments,"  C.  H.   Stoelting,  North  Green  Street,  Chicago. 


VIII 
TESTS  FOR  THIRD  GRADE 

I.  Schoolwork  tests 

1.  Arithmetic 

2.  Composition 

3.  Reading 

II.  Physical  tests 

1.  Height 

2.  Weight 

3.  Test  of  strength 

a.  Of  grip 

b.  Of  back 

c.  Of  legs 

4.  Tests  of  motor  control 

a.  Tapping 

b.  Aiming 

c.  Tracing 

5.  Test  of  eyesight 

a.  For  improvement 

b.  For  strain  c«i  eyes  from  sunshine 

III.  Mental  tests 

1.  Tests  for  accuracy  and  quality  of  apperceptive  mass 

a.  From  the  reading  book  in  use  choose  objects 
and  situations  and  have  them  described  and 
explained 

2.  Tests  for  attention  and  perception 

a.  Cancellation 

b.  Counting  dots 

c.  Simultaneous  adding 

d.  Column  adding 

e.  Binet- Simon  geometrical  figures 

52  [190 


191]  Open- Air  Schools  53 

3.  Tests  for  association 

a.  Associated  words  such  as  page-book 

b.  Opposites 

c.  Memory 

4.  Tests  of  powers  of  discrimination 

a.  Size 

b.  Length 

c.  Weight 

d.  Warmth 

e.  Softness 

f.  Fineness  of  fibre 

5.  Tests  for  invention 

a.  Development  of  sentences 

b.  Completion  of  sentences 

c.  Word  building 

6.  Tests  for  reasoning  ability 

a.  Interpretation  of  fables 

b.  Jumbled  up  sentences  (words  to  be  rearranged 

so  they  will  not  make  sense) 

c.  Reprint,  so  each  child  can  have  a  copy,  a  second 

grade  story  read  the  year  before  leaving  out 
adjectives  and  an  occasional  verb  and  noun. 

Tests  like  the  above  should  be  given  at  the  beginning  and 
end  of  the  school  year,  and  midway  between.  Indoor  classes 
of  the  same  grade  should  be  given  the  tests  at  the  same  time  in 
order  to  make  comparisons. 

Among  some  of  the  standard  tests  especially  suitable  for  third 
grade  pupils  are  the  following.  Others  may  be  had  from  such 
a  book  as  Whipple's  "  Manual  of  Mental  and  Physical  Measure- 
ments." 


54  Teachers  College  Record  [192 

Some  Third  Grade  Tests  Presented  in  Detail 

Muscular  Control  Test 

Maze.  Draw  with  pencil  a  line  between  the  walls  of  this 
maze.  Do  not  let  the  pencil  touch  either  of  the  black  printed 
lines.  Try  to  keep  in  the  middle  and  draw  as  far  as  you  can 
until  stop  is  said.    Time  i  minute  and  30  seconds. 


193]  Open-Air  Schools  55 

Cancellation 
Striking  out  "A"  tests 

1.  Draw  a  line  through  each  A.     Do  not  skip  one.     Time  i 

minute. 

GWBTBVKIKSCSAUEBCIWVABZSMDUBKLWHKHYCGYGK 

NANNCBVBSAKOIUPEKCXVGSTVRIWYBYGKHAZLPBYO 

XAPYEXXHUFSBVDYDIAZLRSATZAZVFCOFSAIPTDOK 

BBISKAKHXDYIUZRHVRZYSCIGECPOFKBICBMGFSDC 

YHSRMVBLYICKZBMXFVBBIKUCBZLOGLVKGFMOATUN 

SHOFHXIMKUXLDZKMRYRLVUWWKYEUVECSOUWBADEX 

ALUAKRMSFTGXWLVGAOWBTPODXBNSFSFSWSDRSMPO 

KBRIGAXZBZACKFBBEVWCGSWBMFEMXXOKRDIWGGBL 

BTPNSKBACVTCSSRKUBURUDMZEWIZFESTMZEBWAFI 

BKSGYHSLSFABTLTIUDXGAKROZYKOBHEAALPMLLKC 

GVCWKKPTUYUGSTSSDWNKSIEICSNBTVADKANTKKPB 

2.  At  the  end  of  an  hour  after  doing  No.  i,  do  the  following 

in  the  same  manner  as  in  No.  i.    Use  this  one  to  show 
fatigue.     Time  i  minute. 

GAAQYEMPAZNTIBXGAIMRUSAWZAZWXAMXBDXAJZ 

ECNABAHGDVSVFTCLAYKUKCWAFRWHTQYAFAAAOH 

UOLJCCAKSZAUAFERFAWAFZAWXBAAAVHAMBATAD 

KVSTVNAPLILAOXYSJUOVYIVPAAPSDNLKRQAAOJLE 

AKNAAPLPAAAHYOAEKLNVFARJAEHNPWIBAYAQRK 

UPDSHAAQGGHTAMZAQGMTPNURQNXIJEOWYCREJD 

TXWAMQEAKHAOPXZWCAIRBRZNSOQAQLMDGUSGB 

FUOFAAKYFGTMBLYZIJAAVAUAAACXDTVDACJSIUFMO 

SNZMWAAAWHACAXHXQAXTDPUTYGSKGRKVLGKIM 

JACINEVBGAOFHARPVEJCTQZAPJLEIQWNAHRBUIAS 

YRQAQEAXJUDFOIMWZSAUCGVAOABMAYDYAAZJDAL 

OYKFIUDBHTAGDAACDIXAMRPAGQZTAACVAOWLYX 

WABBTHJJANEEFAAMEAACBSVSKALLPHANRNPKAZF 


56 


Teachers  College  Record 


[194 


Computation  Tests 

Counting  dots.  Draw  a  line  through  each  dot  counted.  When 
time  is  up  put  down  your  count  in  figures,  i.e.,  46.  Time  30 
seconds  for  each  group. 


D 


Simultaneous  adding.  The  teacher  reads  3,  27,  35.  The  pupil 
is  to  add  i  to  each  of  the  numbers  and  write  results.  Then  he 
must  think  of  the  numbers  the  teacher  said  and  subtract  2  from 
each  one  and  then  write  the  result.  Then  he  must  think  of  the 
numbers  the  teacher  gave  and  add  3  to  each  one  and  write  the 
result.     Time  30  seconds  for  each  operation. 


1951 


Open- Air  Schools 


57 


Opposites 

At  the  side  of  each  word  given  below  have  the  children  write 
the  word  that  stands  for  the  opposite.  Each  child  should  be 
provided  with  a  printed  list  of  these  words.  Explain  carefully 
what  is  required  before  passing  papers  and  do  not  use  the  same 
words  as  are  given  on  the  lists  when  making  explanation.  One 
half  hour  after  column  A  has  been  done  do  column  B.  Tell 
children  to  do  all  they  can.  If  they  cannot  think  of  one  to  go 
on  to  the  next.     Time  2  minutes  for  each  column. 


low 

up 

good 

outside 

quick 

tall 

big 

loud 

white 

light 

above 

many 

happy 

false 

like 

rich 

sick 

glad 

thin 

empty 


B 

high 

down 

bad 

inside 

slow 

short 

little 

soft 

black 

dark 

below 

sad 

true 

dislike 

poor 

well 

sorry 

thick 

full 

peace 


Associated  Words 
(Part- wholes) 
Write  opposite  the  list  of  words  given  the  names  of  the  bigger 
thing  of  which  each  word  in  the  list  is  a  part,  as  finger-hand. 
Time  i  minute. 


A 

door (house,  anything  having  a  door) 

pillow (bed,  couch,  and  so  forth) 

letter (word,  envelope) 

leaf 

button 

nose 

page 

glass 


58 


Teachers  College  Record 


[196 


Ten  minutes  after  giving  list  A,  give  list  B.    Time  i  minute. 

B 

book (page,   cover,  letter,  and  so   forth) 

tree (leaf,  branch,  and  so  forth) 

room 
toy- 
name 
boat 
plant 
fish 


Tests  of  Discrimination 

Montessori  material  can  be  used  for  this. 

The  Binet-Simon  1908  series  of  tests  would  also  serve  here. 

Discrimination  of  Form 

Give  each  pupil  a  sheet  of  forms  like  those  below.  Let  him 
study  these  figures  for  one  minute.  Collect  the  sheets  and  have 
each  child  reproduce  as  many  as  he  can  remember.  Let  three 
minutes  be  given  for  this  reproduction,  cautioning  the  pupils 
to  draw  them  as  well  as  they  can. 


□  0#C>HOOV#B 


^AOnOO^OOo 


<I>AO'&OA'S'[£]0 


OASK^A^a  ®^A 


197]  Open-Air  Schools  59 

Memory 
For  rote  memory. 

I.  Words. — The  teacher  reads  list  A  once  slowly.  As  soon  as 
the  teacher  has  finished  the  reading  the  pupil  writes  down  as 
many  of  the  words  as  he  can  remember.  Slip  A  is  then  collected 
and  the  next  list  read.    Time  for  each  list,  3  minutes. 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

book 

she 

long 

true 

school 

read 

desk 

green 

break 

teacher 

one 

black 

arm 

friend 

book 

bat 

good 

rich 

knife 

desk 

doll 

stone 

rose 

out 

pen 

play 

ring 

read 

if 

dress 

add 

sup 

run 

spell 

bell 

dish 

word 

2.  Sentences. — The  teacher  reads  each  sentence  separately 
after  which  the  pupils  write  down  as  much  as  they  can  remember. 
Time  allowed  for  each  sentence,  3  minutes. 

a.  I  have  one  head,  I  have  two  hands,  I  have  ten  fingers. 

b.  One  and  two  are  three,  three  and  four  are  seven,  five  and 

six  make  more  than  ten. 

c.  I  sit  in  a  seat,  I  read  from  a  book,  I  write  with  a  pencil. 

d.  I  get  up  in  the  morning,  I  go  to  school,  after  school  I 

play,  after  play  I  go  to  bed. 

Memory  for  ideas. 

Read  once  to  the  class  some  story  suitable  to  the  third  grade 
but  unfamiliar  to  the  pupils.  Have  them  reproduce  as  much 
as  they  can  remember  of  it.  Divide  the  story  read  into  as  many 
parts  as  it  has  words  standing  for  ideas.  Count  the  number  of 
ideas  the  children  are  able  to  reproduce  and  grade  accordingly. 
By  dividing  into  ideas,  the  following  is  what  is  meant: 

I  2  3  4  5 

An  Indian     |         once         |       chased       |      a  squirrel     [     into  cloudland. 


IX 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Books  and  Articles 

AuDEN,  George  A.  The  Open-air  School  and  Its  Place  in  Educational 
Organization.    Public  Health,  25 :  249-259,  1912. 

.    Schools  for  Mentally  Defective   Children.     School  Hygiene,  2: 

332-336,  191 1. 

Ayres,  L.  p.  Open-air  Schools.  Doubleday,  Page  and  Company,  1910. 
New  York. 

.    Open-air  Schools.    Proceedings,  National  Education  Association, 

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.    Education    Committee.     Open-air   school,    Bostall   Wood 

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on  experiments  conducted  in  Germany  in  connection  with  open- 
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Son,  Ltd.,  1908,  27  pp.,  plates,  diagrams. 

Report  of  the  Education  Committee  of  the  Council,  sub- 


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Officer  (Education)  on  the  open-air  schools,  held  at  Birley 
House,  Dulwich,  Montpelier  House,  Upper  Holloway,  and 
Shrewsbury  House,  Woolwich,  between  the  loth  June  and  31st 
October,  1908.     (London,  1909.) 

Manchester.  The  Manchester  County  School  for  Town  Children. 
Fourth  Annual  Report,  pp.  1-12,  1907. 

Fifth  Annual  Report  of  Education  Committee,  pp.  50-54;  220-223,  1906- 
1907. 

Sheffield.  Report  of  the  School  Medical  Officer  on  the  Open-air  Recov- 
ery School  at  Whitley  Wood,  December,  1909. 

German 
Elberfeld.    Waldschule  in  Bergischen  Lande.     Verein   fur  Gemeinwohl, 
Elberfeld. 

Italian 
Grilli,  Gaetano.    La  Scliola  AH'  Aperto.    Tipografia  ditta  Ludovico  Cec- 
chini,  191 1,  Rome. 


ADVERTISEMENTS 

ELEMENTARY  PSYCHOLOGY 

Suggestions  for  the  Interpretation 
of  Human  Life 

By  D.  L  Phillips,  Head  of  the  Department  of  Psychology  and 
Education  in  the  University  of  Denver 


12ino,  cloth,  352  pages,  illustrated,  $1.20 


A  complete  elementary  course  in  psychology  in  which  the  subject  is 
developed  inductively  and  with  special  emphasis  on  the  connection  of  psychol- 
ogy with  life  and  conduct — a  treatment  as  novel  as  it  is  suggestive.  Sug- 
gestion and  Mental  Healing,  Magic  and  Spiritualism,  Relation  of  Psychology 
to  Evolution,  Problems  of  Heredity  and  Environment,  Social  Psychology, 
and  Psychology  in  Literature  and  Art  are  a  few  of  the  chapters  that  touch 
on  practical  applications  of  the  science  which  are  of  special  contemporary 
interest. 

While  admirably  adapted  for  an  introductory  course  in  high  schools, 
normal  schools,  and  colleges.  Elementary  Psydiology  also  provides  interesting 
material  for  teachers  and  reading  circles,  or  for  the  general  reader. 


GINN  AND  COMPANY 
70  FIFTH  AVENUE  NEW  YORK 


Morrow's  Language  for  Little  People 

THE  book  contains  180  easy  lessons  in  language — one  les- 
son for  each  day  of  a  nine-months'  school  year.  These 
lessons  are  adapted  to  pupils  of  the  Second  Reader  Grade. 
They  are  based  upon  the  belief  that  careful  practice  is  needed 
in  training  children  early  in  life  to  express  their  own  thoughts 
concerning  matters  within  their  own  experience.  Persistent 
attention  to  rules  herein  indicated,  and  the  careful  practice  of 
the  exercises  presented  or  suggested,  can  hardly  fail  to  culti- 
vate and  impress  the  habit  of  using  correct  English.  The 
clearness,  simplicity,  and  interesting  quality  of  its  various 
lessons  make  this  an  excellent  introductory  volume  to  be  used 
in  connection  with  any  series.  It  is  fully  illustrated  with  full- 
page  pictures  and  small  cuts  in  the  text. 


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published  or  reprinted  by  teachers  college 
Educational    Psychology.      Edward    L.    Thorndike,    Professor    of    Educational 
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umes.    $2.50  each. 
Vol.      I.     The  Original  Nature  of  Man. 
Vol.    II.     The  Psychology  of  Learning. 

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and  Their  Causes.     Ready  January,  1914. 
School  Health  Administration.     Louis  W.   Rapeer,   Ph.D.     360  pages.     $2.15. 

Medical  Inspection  Plan  alone,  50  cents. 
Speyer  School  Curriculum.     A  detailed  description  of  the  work  of  the  Experi- 
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Horace  Mann  Elementary  School  Curriculum.    A  detailed  description  af  the  work 

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Series  IL     The  Common  Faith  of  Common  Men.     Rockwell  Haruon  Potter, 

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$1.25. 


The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art.  Arthur  W.  Dow,  Professor  of  Fine 
Arts,  Teachers  College.     Revised  edition.     $1.50. 

A  Bibliography  on  Educational  Hygiene  and  Physical  Education.  Thomas  Denisom 
Wood,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Physical  Education,  Teachers  College  and  Colum- 
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The  Old  Testament  in  the  Sunday  School.  A.  J.  William  Mykrs,  Ph.D.  141 
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Idiocy  and  its  Treatment  by  the  Physiological  Method.  Dr.  Seguin.  202  pages. 
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Bibliography  of  Children's  Reading.  Franklin  T.  Baker.  129  pages.  Paper 
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Mental  and  Social  Measurements.  Professor  Edward  L.  Thorndike.  Revised 
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Value  of  Science.  H.  Poincare,  Member  of  Institute  of  France.  Authorized 
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Heredity,  Correlation  and  Sex  Differences  in  School  Abilities.    Edited  by  Professor 

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Notes    on    Child   Study.      Second    edition.     Professor    Edward    L.   Thorndike. 

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(Continued  on  next  page) 


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Teachers  College  Record 


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CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  I— ipoo 

No.  I  '  The    History    and    Function    of    Teachers    College — Papers    by 
January"  Dean  Russell  and  Ex-President  Hervey.     (Out  of  print). 

No.  2,  March  Nature  Study — Miss  Carse  and  Professor  Lloyd. 

No.  3,  May  English.     (Out  of  print). 

No.  4  Syllabi  of  Education   Courses — President  Butler,  Dean    Rus- 
September  sell  and  Professors  Monroe  and  Dutton. 

No.  5,  NoTcmber  Hand  Work.     (Out  of  print). 


No.  I 

January 

No  3 

March 

No.  3 

May 

No.  4 

September 

No.  5,  November 

No.  I 
January 

No.  3 

March 

N08.  3  and  4 

May,  September 

No.  5 
November 


No.  I 

January 

No.  3 

March 

No.  3 

May 

No.  4 1  September 

No.  5 

November 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  II— 1901 

Biology  in  the  Horace  Mann  High  School — Professors  Lloyd 

and  Bigelow. 
Geography  in  the  Horace  Mann  School — Professor  Dodge  and 

Miss  KiRCHWEY. 

Child  Study — Sources  of  Material  and  Syllabi  of  College  Courses 

— Professor  Thorndikb. 
Syllabi   of   Courses   in   Elementary   aiui   Applied   Psychology — 

Professor  Thorndikb. 
Manual  Training.     (Out  of  print). 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  III— 1902 

Horace  Mann  School;  Dedication  Number — Papers  by  Presi- 
dent Oilman,  Professor  Dutton  and  others,  on  Present- 
Day  Problems  in  Education.     (Out  of  print). 

Chemistry  and  Physics  in  the  Horace  Mann  High  School — Pro- 
fessor WooDHULL.     (Out  of  print). 

Helps  for  the  Teaching  of  Caesar — Professor  Lodgb  and  Messrs. 
HuBBELL  and  Little.     (Out  of  print). 

The  Speyer  School.  Part  I — Its  History  and  Purpose — Dean 
Russell,  Professor  McMurry  and  Mr.  Burks. 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  IV— 1903 

The  Speyer  School.  Part  II — Its  Curriculum  and  its  Relation  to 
Teachers  College — Professor  McMurry  and  Mr.  Burks. 

McUhematics  in  the  Elementary  School — Professors  Smith  and 
McMurry.     (Out  of  print). 

New  Methods  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages — Doctor  Leo- 
pold Bahlsen. 

University  Extension — Professor  Sykes. 

The    Philosophy    and    Psychology    of    the    Kindergarten — Dean 
Russell  and  Professors  Thorndikb  and  MacVannel. 
(Continued  on  next  page) 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


Teachers  College  Record 

{Cottiinued) 


Wo.  X,  January 

No.  2 

March 

No.  3 

May 

No.  4 

September 

No.  5 

November 


No.  I,  January 

No.  2 

March 

No.  3 

Hay 

No.  4 

September 

No.  5 
November 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  V— 1Q04 
Music  in  the  Schools — Professor  Farnsworth  and  Miss  Hoper. 
The  Curriculum  of  the  Elementary  School — Professors  Duttom, 

Pearson,  Richards,  Wood  and  Woodhull. 
Experimental    Work    in    Elementary    Schools — Professor    Mc- 

MuRRY  and  others. 
Syllabi    of   Education    and    English    Courses — Professors  Mac- 

Vannel,  Abbott,  Baker  and  Sykes.     (Out  of  print). 
Kindergarten    Education — Professor    Runyan,    Miss    O'Grady 

and  Miss  Mills. 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  VI— 1905 

Educational  Psychology — Professors  Ellis  and  Thorndikb. 

School  Hygiene — Professors  Wood  and  Kinne,  and  Doctori 
Jacobi,  Weeks  and  Kerley. 

City  School  Expenditures — Dr.  Strayer.  (Out  of  print).  Re- 
issued as  No.  5  Teachers  College  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion, price  $i.co,  cloth  bound. 

The  Educational  Theories  of  Herbart  and  Froebel — Professor 
MacVannel.  (Out  of  print).  Reissued  as  No.  4  Teachers 
College  Contributions  to  Education,  price  $1.00,  cloth  bound. 

Some  Fiscal  Aspects  of  Public  Education  in  American  Cities — 
Professor  Elliott.  (Out  of  print).  Reissued  as  No.  6 
Teachers  College  Contributions  to  Education,  price  $x.oo, 
cloth  bound. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  VII— 1906 
No.  I,  January        Elementary  School  Curriculum.     First  Grad^.     (Out  of  print). 
No.  2  Secondary  School  Curriculum.     Part  One.     Language,   History, 

March  Matliematics. 

No.  3,  May  Secondary  School  Curriculum.     Part  Two.     Science  and  Art, 

No.  4,  September    Elementary  School  Curriculum.     Second  and  Third  Grades.     (Out 

of  print). 
No.  5,  November    Studies  in  the  Teaching  of  English  Grammar. 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  VIII— 1907 
No.  I,  January       Elementary  School  Curriculum.    Fourth  and  Fifth  Grades. 
No.  2,  March  Experimental  Studies  in  Education. 

No.  3,  May  Elementary  School  Curriculum.    Sixth  Grade. 

No.  4,  September    Elementary  School  Curriculum.    Seventh  Grade.     (Out  of  print). 
No.  5,  November     The  Industrial  Improvement  Schools  of  Wurttemberg. 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  IX— 1908 
No.  I,  January        A  Bibliography  of  Children's  Reading.     Professor  Baker. 
No.  2,  March  A  Bibliography  of  Children's  Reading  (Continued). 

No.  I  and  No.  2  on  Children's  Reading  have  been  reissued  as  one  pamphlet, 
125  pages,  price  60c.     The  original  separate  No.  i  is  out  of  print. 
No.  3,  May  The  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching  Art — Professor  Dow. 

An   enlarged    and   revised    reprint    of  this,    bound  in  boards,  has  been  issued. 
Price  $1.50. 
No.  4,  September    Educational  Museums — B.  R.  Andrews. 
No.  5,  November    Teaching  of  History — Professor  Johnson.     (Out  of  print). 

{Continued  on  next  page) 


ADVERTISEMENTS 


Teachers  College  Record 

{Continued) 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  X— 1909 
No.  I,  January        The  Teaching  of  Arithmetic — Professor  Smith.     (Reprinted) 
No.  3,  March  Studies  in  Secondary  Education. 

No.  3,  May  Domestic  Science  Equipment.     Professor  Kinne.     (Out  of  print 

in  Record  form) 
No.  4,  September    The  Making  of  a  Girls'  Trade  School.      Professor  Woolman. 

(Out  of  print  in  Record  form) 
No.  5,  November    Articles    on   Kindergarten   Education.      Professor    MacVannel 

and  Miss  Patty  Smith  Hill.     (Reprinted) 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  XI— 19 10 

No.  X  The  Teaching  of  Physical  Science.    Professor  John  F.  Wood- 

January  hull. 

No.  2,  March  Handwriting.     Professor  E.  L.  Thorndike.     (Reprinted) 

No.  3,  May  Nurses  Education.     Edited  by  Professor  Nutting. 

No.  4  Stenographic  Reports  of  High  School  Lessons.    Edited  by  Miss 

September  Romiett  Stevens.     (Reprinted) 

No.  5  Studies  in  Educational  Administration.     Edited  by  Professor 

November  Strayer.     (Out  of  print.) 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  XII— 191 1 
No.  1  Studies  in  Elementary  School  Practice.     Edited  by  Professor 

January  Bonser.     (Out  of  print.) 

No.  2  The  Teaching  of  Primary  Arithmetic.     Professor  Henry  Suz- 

March  zallo.     (Out  of  print  in  Record  form.) 

No.  3,  May  Higher  Girls'  School  of  Prussia.     Dr.  C.  William  Pretttman. 

No.  4,  September      Industrial  Education.    Professor  Sykes  and  Professor  Bonser. 

(Out  of  print.) 
No.  5,  November        The    Teaching   of   Spelling.      Professor   Suzzallo.      (Out   of 

print  in  Record  form.) 


No.  I 
January 
No.  2 
March 

No.  3 
May 
No.  4 
September 
No.  5 
November 


No.  I 
January 
No.  2 
March 
No.  3 
May 

*No. 
No.  4 
September 
No.  5 
November 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  XIII— 191 2 

Comparative   Experimental    Teaching   in   Spelling.      Professor 

Suzzallo  and  Mr.  Pearson. 
Present    Teaching    of    Mathematics    in    Germany.      Professor 

Smith  with  co-operation  of  graduate  students. 
Health  Instruction  in  the  Elementary  School.     Professor  Wood 

and  Miss  Rbesor. 
A  Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  Quality  in  English  Composition 

of  Young  People.     Professor  Hillegas. 
Number  Games  and  Number  Rhymes.     Professor  Smith,  and 
certain  students  of  Teachers  College. 

CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  XIV— 1913 

Educational    Surveys    and    Vocational    Guidance.      Leonard 
Righter  and  Robert  J.  Leonard. 

Curriculum  of  Horace  Mann  Elementary  School,  Arithmetic, 
Geography,  History,  and  Music* 

Curriculum    of    Horace    Mann   Elementary   School,    English, 
Nature-Study,  Industrial,  Household  and  Fine  Arts,  Phys- 
ical Education.* 
and  No.  3  reprinted  in  one  volume.     Separate  numbers  out  of  print. 

Formal    English    Grammar    as    a    Discipline.      Thomas    H. 
Briggs,  Ph.D. 

Scale    for   Measuring   Achievement    in    Drawing.      Professor 
Edward  L.  Thorndike. 


BEARD'S  AMERICAN  CITIZENSHIP 

330  pages,  $1.00  list  price 


A  BOOK  that  deals  with  the  social  and  economic  phases  of 
our  governmental  institutions  as  well  as  with  their  politi- 
cal and  operative  significance. 

Community  civics  with  the  emphasis  on  the  civics.  A  basis  for  good 
citizenship  in  any  community,  that  describes  the  intimate  connection  between 
our  immediate  concerns  as  a  social  group  and  the  government  that  controls 
them — our  tenement,  our  road  master,  our  freight  rates  and  our  Department 
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mission. 

Not  civil  government  resolved  into  sets  of  rules,  not  civil  government 
in  which  private  activities  are  emphasized  at  the  expense  of  the  political  and 
administrative  institutions  long  established  that  still  prevail,  but  civil  govern- 
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THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

66  FIFTH  AVENUE  NEW  YORK 

Boaton         -         Cbicafto         -  Atlanta         -         Dallas       -         San  Francisco 


The  English  Journal 

Official  Organ  of  the  National  Council  of  Teachers  of  English 
Edited  by  James  Fleming  Hosic 


The  English  Journal  is  a  professional  magazine  for  school  and  college 
teachers.  It  is  at  once  a  clearing  house  of  experience  and  opinion  and  the 
exponent  of  a  new  and  progressive  movement.  It  is  supported  by  the  leaders 
in  every  state. 

Among  recent  and  forthcoming  articles  are  the  following:  The 
Teacher  of  English,  by  Franklin  T.  Baker;  Grades  that  Explain  Themselves, 
by  Percy  W.  Long;  A  Course  in  Periodical  Literature,  by  Allan  Abbott;  The 
Problem  of  the  High  School  Play,  by  Thacher  Guild;  Two  Experiments  in 
Experience,  by  Charles  A.  Dawson;  The  Use  of  a  Scale  for  Grading  Composi- 
tions, by  Edward  L.  Thomdike;  Teaching  English  to  Filipinos,  by  Helen  Fee; 
The  Organization  of  Instruction  in  Composition,  by  Samuel  C.  Earle;  Prep- 
aration in  English  for  Business,  by  Edward  H.  Webster;  Literature  Courses 
in  the  Small  College,  by  Henry  A.  Burd. 

Each  number  of  the  Journal  contains,  in  addition  to  leading  articles, 
brief  discussions  in  the  Round  Table,  editorials,  news  items,  book  reviews,  and 
book  notices.  From  time  to  time  special  reports  and  bibliographies  are  also 
included. 

Published  monthly  except  in  July  and  August.     Subscription  price  $2.50. 
Single  copies  30  cents  each.     A  sample  copy  will  be  sent  on  request. 

Address:     THE  ENGLISH  JOURNAL,   68th  St.  and  Stewart  Ave.,  Chicago,  111. 


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